Archive for September, 2010
Does the Implementation of the Block Schedule Have an Effect on Student Behavior
September 30th, 2010 | 
Author:
Does the Implementation of Block Scheduling
Have An Effect on Student Behavior?It was a cold night on the Siberian plains. Russian soldiers were huddled together in an attempt to keep warm on this, the beginning of their third consecutive month of duty. The commander of the Russian Army arrived just before the changing of the guard. There was much excitement as the word spread that the commander had an important announcement to make.
“I have some good news and some bad news,” said the Commander. “First, the good news…Today, everyone in this army troop will get a change of underwear!”
The crowd erupted into boisterous cheers.
“But now for the bad news…Boris, you must change with Ivan, and Mikahl, you must change with Nikki. ”
Since the late 1950′s and the work of James B. Conant on the comprehensive high school, change in education has been much the same as this scenario in Siberia. In many cases, the name has changed, but the ideas remain the same. In order for one to determine the extent to which school structure influences the behavior of students, one must first find some area of the school environment that has changed enough to test this difference.
Looking back to the same time frame when Conant published his first book, one may find the seeds to an issue that has been a robust conversation in education over the last ten years, the institution of the block scheduling model. Since the idea of changing traditional school schedules emerged on the scene, there have been passionate proponents, opponents, and many studies that attempt to prove a particular way of thinking about time and how it relates to student performance. The change, to many schools buying into block scheduling, has been gradual over the past fifty years, and now there may be a swing of the pendulum for many of those same schools to revert back to the traditional schedule.
In 1959, J. Lloyd Trump proposed eliminating the traditional high school schedule and instituting classes of varying lengths in accordance with the instructional needs of students. The Trump Plan allowed for a class to meet for a 40 minute lecture, a 100 minute lab, and a 20 minute help session each week, whereas other classes could be short periods of 20 to 30 minutes. Trump encouraged teachers using his design to experiment with a variety of instructional strategies (Queen, 2000).
This was to be the impetus of the block scheduling concept that continues to divide educators across the United States and Canada . As in most situations, it seems that both sides of the issue produce valid arguments and studies to support their viewpoint.
Since Trump’s work in 1959, creative scheduling practices were a “hit-and-miss” proposition. It was not until A Nation at Risk in 1983 challenged educational leaders to look for alternative strategies that would increase student achievement that the real “thinking” on block scheduling truly began. In 1993 Tom Donahoe argued that the restructuring of schools should include the formal rearranging of the use of time in order to promote an active culture that would improve student learning (Donahoe, 1993). In 1994 the National Commission on time and learning published its report, Prisoner of Time, which warned that schools must be reinvented to focus on learning, not time (NCTL 1994). This government document seemed to be a mandate for educational leaders to change the traditional school schedule to accommodate a different type of education in the schools of the time.
The over-arching question emerged, How would educational institutions arrange their time? The term “block-scheduling” became the “catch-phrase” for the strategy; however, it had several different meanings that were reflected in a myriad of schedule options and the subject of many academic studies.
In general, block scheduling organizes a course around one semester of 90 minute classes instead of two semesters of 50 minute classes. Various forms of block scheduling have been developed from this concept: the straight forward four 90 minute periods per semester (4X4); a two day rotating system with students completing eight classes during the year (A/B) or two to three 90 minute blocks and a variable or split 45 minute class (modified block). These classes can be scheduled in various combinations according to the subject content or desired flexibility (Canady & Rettig, 1995).
In most institutions, change is difficult. Educational institutions are no different in many ways as those in the world of business. Those who are in favor of some form of block scheduling base their support on more than just student achievement. Proponents of block scheduling argued that an impersonal environment was created by the “assembly-line, single-period day schedule” and the disciplinary problems were exacerbated by schedules that release thousands of students into hallways six to ten times a day for 3 to 5 minutes of noise and stress (Canady & Rettig, 1995).
The detractors point toward a lack of data to prove increased student achievement as well as many peripheral items as well. The American Federation of Teachers in their September 1999 publication listed five pitfalls of block scheduling:
1. Cognitive science shows that regular review, spaced out over a long period of time, is beneficial to long-term memory of subject matter. Block scheduling diminishes opportunities for review, especially where “year-long” courses are compressed into a single semester. Thus, the practice may actually serve to diminish student performance.
2. Ninety minutes is a long time to hold students’ attention, and few teachers or other instructional staff has been trained in how to use this period of time effectively.
3. Student transfers to and from schools with block schedules can be highly problematic; in some subjects, an entire year’s curriculum is lost through a mid-year transfer.
4. Missing one day of school under block scheduling can be like missing almost a week under traditional scheduling. For students who miss a week due to illness or other problems, catching up may be almost impossible.
5. Some block schedules actually result in less instructional time. A 55 minute class that meets five times a week gives the instructor 550 minutes every two weeks, for example, whereas a 90 minute meeting on alternating days for two weeks only gives the instructor 450 minutes.
Imposing a scheduling model on a school will not ensure success. The research recommends that a minimum of two years planning time should be considered before implementation is suggested (Northwest Regional Educational Lab 1990). Part of that planning would have to include studying how the new block may effect achievement, the ability for students to take the necessary courses to graduate on time, and the training for teachers that is imperative to a block schedule’s success.
There have been many studies completed since the days of J. Lloyd Trump. Studies using surveys to assess teacher attitudes toward block scheduling have often been positive (Pullen, Morse, & Varrella, 1998; Sessoms, 1995; Tanner, 1996). There have also been many studies conducted that looked at how block scheduling affected grade point averages (Buckman, King & Ryan, 1995; Edwards, 1993; Holmberg, 1996; Schoenstein, 1995). Most of these studies support the longer traditional schedule over the 4X4 block schedule in science, for example, yet support the 4X4 block schedule in math and social studies. (Veal & Schreiber, 1999). Graduation rates have also been reported to benefit from the 4X4 schedule (Carroll, 1995; Monroe, 1989; Sessoms, 1995). The findings of these studies have been inconsistent, sometimes reporting gains for students on block scheduling, sometimes reporting no differences, and sometimes reporting losses compared with students on traditional scheduling (Veal & Schreiber, 1999).
The largest study ever done on the block scheduling issue in the United States was conducted by the North Carolina Department of Public Instruction in the mid-1990′s. The study compared students across the state that were part of a block scheduling school (usually 4X4) to traditionally scheduled students. This study looked at the impact on state mandated end of course assessments. According to the literature, most of the schools on block schedules came from “poor and traditionally low achieving areas” so the results had to be adjusted. According to the adjusted figures, in 1995, the first year of the study, the block students were outscoring the traditional students in most subjects tested. But that edge was “whittled” over time so that by 1998, students from both types of schools were scoring comparably on tests in four of five subjects (Viadero, 2001).
The North Carolina study also pointed out several additional factors that seem to have some significance. The study showed that the block schedule resulted in students being in class for fifteen fewer hours over the course of a semester. Surprisingly, these students performed just as well as they had before with the traditional schedule. The study also pointed out that the block schedule did allow students to enroll in additional classes and practically doubled teacher planning time.
On the other side of the issue, and the border for that matter, was a study completed in Canada in which more than 30,000 students participated. The results of the survey indicated that the 4X4 block schedule had a slightly negative impact on students in both math and science. This study, directed by Dr. David J. Bateson at the University of British Columbia sorted the math and science scores of 10th graders according to the “type” of school attended. The study looked at schools that were year-round, semester based, and quarter organized. Batesman himself acknowledged design problems in the study due to the test which was conducted in May. According to analysis of the study, the May test date meant that year-round students had yet to receive three to seven weeks of instruction which is the equivalent to six to fourteen weeks for semester students and twelve to twenty-eight weeks for quarter students. Although the study was not designed to address the effects of block scheduling, many researchers felt that the relationship between a “timetable pattern” and academic achievement gave the strongest relationship.
Dr. Robert Lynn Canady, a professor emeritus at the University of Virginia and a well-known proponent of block scheduling criticized the study. Canady reported that Canadian classes ranging from 60 to 80 minutes in length were shorter than in most US schools using the same sort of schedule, teachers got less time than US teachers for professional development or lesson planning, and that the researchers failed to account for any socioeconomic differences among the schools studied (Viadero, 2001).
In what almost seemed a response to the Canadian study, in 1994 Coventry ( Ohio ) local schools decided to find out for themselves if this block scheduling concept truly would make a difference. The impetus for this study was the conflicting results of so many studies that had been previously completed.
The structure of the school schedule made for fertile research grounds. Virtually the entire student population attended classes taught in both the traditional and block formats. Most students choose a mixture of block and traditional formats for their core courses. Course content for core courses was the same whether taken in block or traditional format. It was assumed that students taking English at the sophomore level should experience the same course content in both the traditional and block formats. It was hypothesized that some of the variance in performance on subject tests could be accounted for by the style of scheduling over and above other significant variables (Hess, Wronkovich, Robinson 1999).
The students involved in this study were given “pre” and “post” test to determine progress within the type of schedule assigned. Significant results were discovered in both English and biology where the type of schedule, block or traditional, significantly predicted how well the student would do on the end-of-course assessment. Block scheduling seemed to be the common denominator to better success in these subjects. Other areas lacked a significant correlation.
In 1998 David Hottenstein surveyed 24 high schools in several states and discovered additional positive results of block scheduling ( Hottenstein, 1998). In
his research he was able to collect data both before and after a block schedule model was implemented. He used surveys given to students, teachers, and administrators to measure any differences. Prior to block scheduling, only 33% of respondents supported extended class schedules. Once implemented, however, 80% said that longer classes were better than shorter classes. Teacher satisfaction with block scheduling increased from 52% to 87% (Queen, 2000).
There are many who criticize Hottenstein’s results due to the sample of the survey. These detractors point out that 150 schools in Virginia , Pennsylvania , Maryland , Alabama , North Carolina , South Carolina , and Colorado were solicited with only 24 responding. To make matters worse, none of the surveys returned obtained a 100% response rate to every question. It is the critic’s contention that the sparse return of the information places serious limitations on the validity of the study.
A 1995 study by Carl Glickman, a University of Georgia professor, looked at 820 high schools and 11,000 students. He found that in schools where active learning methods were predominant, students had significantly higher achievement as measured by the National Assessment of Educational Progress. This was connected to block scheduling studies because teachers at schools with block scheduling may use longer instructional periods to engage students in experiments, writing, and other forms of active learning, as opposed to merely lecturing students (Education World, 1997).
Also in 1995, a study by Donald Hackmann seems to relate to the active learning issue. Hackmann’s study reported that the first year on block scheduling was the most challenging for teachers and principals (Hackman, 1995). This research points to the absolute necessity of training teachers to use the time given in the most efficient manner possible.
Although this study was limited to the entire student body of just one school, the results were nevertheless interesting. The results of the surveys given showed that 47 percent liked the block schedule (42 percent preferred it over the traditional daily schedule), but one in four students did not like the new schedule. It was noted that 62% of the students found the longer periods helpful for elective courses, but only 35% of the students preferred longer periods for core academic subjects. Teachers approved of the block schedule at a 77% satisfaction rate. Almost all teachers said they had made changes in their teaching strategies, and 63 percent said they were covering less content (Hackman and Waters 1998).
Perhaps one of the most convincing studies available was done by Laura C. Stokes and Joe W. Wilson who are both professors of education at the University of North Alabama , Florence . This study, “A Longitudinal Study of Teachers’ Perceptions of the Effectiveness of Block Versus Traditional Scheduling” compared teachers’ perception of the block schedule after one and two years to the perceptions of those same teachers at the end of the third and fourth years. The samples for both studies were the same four high schools and only teachers who were employed during the first study were questioned in the second survey.
The study formed two research questions:
1. After an extended period of use (three or four years), what are teachers’ perceptions of block scheduling as they relate to its effectiveness, factors critical to implementation, advantages of block scheduling, measurable outcomes, and factors critical in maintenance?
2. What are teachers perceptions of the block schedule after an extended period of use (three or four years) as compared with their initial perceptions as measured in the 1996-97 school year after one or two years of block scheduling?
To structure data analysis in answering the second research question, three research hypotheses were formulated:
Hypotheses 1 There will be no significant relationship between teachers’ initial perceptions of the effectiveness of block scheduling and their perceptions of its effectiveness after extended use.
Hypotheses 2 There will be no significant relationship between subject areas taught and teachers’ perceptions of the effectiveness of block scheduling after extended use.
Hypotheses 3 There will be no significant relationship between years of teaching experience and teachers’ opinions of block scheduling after extended use (Stokes and Wilson 2000).
The results of this study found that teachers at these particular schools favored block scheduling to be more effective both at the end of the two-year study as well as the four year study. Teachers once again pointed to increased planning time, greater expectations for student achievement, and greater opportunities to gain credits toward graduation to be the most attractive features of the block schedule. The passage of time seemed to solidify the perceptions of the schedule rather than detract from its effectiveness.
One of the difficulties in trying to make sense of the research on block scheduling lies in the multiple possibilities of block scheduling that exists. There are many studies that have been done on small segments of the population that causes one to wonder about the external validity of the work that has been done. As previously discussed, the few larger studies that have been completed have several limitations as well.
So the question remains…To what extent does school structure influence the behavior of students? The research points to block scheduling as a part to the whole picture. Areas such as curriculum, student discipline, and teacher training must be addressed at the same time as the type of schedule under consideration.
After a review of much of the available literature, one would probably be safe to say that there is a bulk of evidence to unequivocally state that changing to a block schedule will not have a negative effect on the students involved. It seems much more difficult to say that the change in schedule will definitively raise student achievement. There is little argument, however, as to the effects of block scheduling on students as it relates to discipline issues. The question that permeates this discussion, however, is whether the child’s behavior is affected or does the schedule not place the student in as many situations where trouble may occur. Since a very large portion of disciplinary referrals occur during the change of classes, less class changes should and do have an obvious impact. Attached to this argument are those studies that report fewer discipline referrals should correlate to greater student achievement.
Perhaps the greatest impact on student behavior as it relates to achievement is the manner in which the time is used. In a 1996 article by Cunningham and Nogle, it was reported that the most useful instructional practices in block classes included warm-up games, cooperative learning groups, large group discussions, interactive lectures coupled with discussion, peer teaching, guided practice activities, discovery method, creative projects, and the use of games and puzzles (Cunningham & Nogle, 1996).
As one studies the implementation of any new structure in a business or school, one must look at a complete package of strategies that are inherent to the entire concept. Just as in the Siberian plains, it doesn’t do much good to change underwear just for the sake of changing. For if the change is just for the sake of change, one may end up in a situation that is not as beneficial as the one in which he currently exists. Block scheduling certainly does have an impact on student behavior, however, the extent of that change depends on many other factors that are critical to its success.
REFERENCES
Buckman, D. ; King, B. ; and Ryan S. (1995) Block Scheduling: A Means to Improve
School Climate, NASSP Bulletin, 79, 9-18.
Canady, Robert L. , and Rettig, Michael D. (1995) Block Scheduling: A Catalyst for
Change in High School, Princeton, NJ : Eye on Education.
Carroll, J. M. (1995) The Copernican Plan Evaluated: The Evolution of a Revolution. Phi
Delta Kappan, 76, 104-110, 112-113.
Cunningham, Daniel, and Nogel, Sue Ann (1996) Implementing a Semesterized Block
Schedule: Six Key Elements, High School Magazine, 63, 29-33.
Donahoe, Tom (1993) Finding the Way: Structure, Time, and Culture in School
Improvement, Phi Delta Kappan, December, 298-305.
Education World (1997) Block Scheduling: A Solution or a Problem?, School
Administrators Article.
Edwards, C. (1993) The 4X4 Plan, Educational Leadership, 53 (3): 16-19.
Hackman, Donald G. (1995) Ten Guidelines for Implementing Block Scheduling,
Educational Leadership, November, 24-27.
Hackman, Donald G. , and Waters, David L. (1998) Breaking Away from Tradition: The
Farmington High School Restructuring Experience, NASSP Bulletin, March 1998, 83-92.
Hess, C. , Wronkovich, M. , and Robinson, J. (1999) Measured Outcomes of Learning
Under Block Scheduling, NASSP Bulletin, December, 1999, 87-95.
Holmberg, T. (1996) Block Scheduling versus Traditional Education: A Comparison of
Grade-Point Averages and ACT Scores, Unpublished doctoral dissertation,
University of Wisconsin , Eau Claire .
Hottenstein, David S. (1998) Intensive Scheduling: Restructuring America ‘s Secondary
Schools Through Time Management ( Thousand Oaks, CA : Corwin Press)
Monroe, M. J. (1989) BLOCK: Successful Alternative Format Addressing Learner Needs,
Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Association of Teacher Educators,
St. Louis, MO.
National Commission on Time and Learning (1994) Prisoners of Time ( Washington, DC :
US Government Printing Office, 1994).
Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory, Rural Education Program (1999) Literature
Search on the Question: What are the Advantages and Disadvantages of Various Scheduling Options for Small Secondary Schools (High Schools and Middle Schools)?, Portland, Oregon , 329-385.
Pullen, S. L. , Morse, J. , and Varrella, G. F. (1998) A Second Look at Block Scheduling,
Paper presented at the Annual Conference of the National Association of Science Teachers, Las Vegas, NV .
Queen, J. Allen (2000) Block Scheduling Revisited, Phi Delta Kappan, 82, 214-222.
Schoenstein, R. (1995) The New School on the Block Schedule, The Executive Educator,
17(8): 18-21.
Sessoms, J. C. (1995) Teachers Perceptions of Three Models of High School Scheduling,
Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Virginia , Charlottesville .
Stokes, Laura C. and Wilson, Joe W. (2000) A Longitudinal Study of Teachers’
Perceptions of the Effectiveness of Block Versus Traditional Scheduling, NASSP
Bulletin, 84(619), 90-98.
Tanner, B. M. (1996) Perceived Staff Needs of Teachers in High Schools with Block
Schedules, Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Virginia , Charlottesville .
Does the Implementation of Block Scheduling
Have An Effect on Student Behavior?
It was a cold night on the Siberian plains. Russian soldiers were huddled together in an attempt to keep warm on this, the beginning of their third consecutive month of duty. The commander of the Russian Army arrived just before the changing of the guard. There was much excitement as the word spread that the commander had an important announcement to make.
“I have some good news and some bad news,” said the Commander. “First, the good news…Today, everyone in this army troop will get a change of underwear!”
The crowd erupted into boisterous cheers.
“But now for the bad news…Boris, you must change with Ivan, and Mikahl, you must change with Nikki. ”
Since the late 1950′s and the work of James B. Conant on the comprehensive high school, change in education has been much the same as this scenario in Siberia. In many cases, the name has changed, but the ideas remain the same. In order for one to determine the extent to which school structure influences the behavior of students, one must first find some area of the school environment that has changed enough to test this difference.
Looking back to the same time frame when Conant published his first book, one may find the seeds to an issue that has been a robust conversation in education over the last ten years, the institution of the block scheduling model. Since the idea of changing traditional school schedules emerged on the scene, there have been passionate proponents, opponents, and many studies that attempt to prove a particular way of thinking about time and how it relates to student performance. The change, to many schools buying into block scheduling, has been gradual over the past fifty years, and now there may be a swing of the pendulum for many of those same schools to revert back to the traditional schedule.
In 1959, J. Lloyd Trump proposed eliminating the traditional high school schedule and instituting classes of varying lengths in accordance with the instructional needs of students. The Trump Plan allowed for a class to meet for a 40 minute lecture, a 100 minute lab, and a 20 minute help session each week, whereas other classes could be short periods of 20 to 30 minutes. Trump encouraged teachers using his design to experiment with a variety of instructional strategies (Queen, 2000).
This was to be the impetus of the block scheduling concept that continues to divide educators across the United States and Canada . As in most situations, it seems that both sides of the issue produce valid arguments and studies to support their viewpoint.
Since Trump’s work in 1959, creative scheduling practices were a “hit-and-miss” proposition. It was not until A Nation at Risk in 1983 challenged educational leaders to look for alternative strategies that would increase student achievement that the real “thinking” on block scheduling truly began. In 1993 Tom Donahoe argued that the restructuring of schools should include the formal rearranging of the use of time in order to promote an active culture that would improve student learning (Donahoe, 1993). In 1994 the National Commission on time and learning published its report, Prisoner of Time, which warned that schools must be reinvented to focus on learning, not time (NCTL 1994). This government document seemed to be a mandate for educational leaders to change the traditional school schedule to accommodate a different type of education in the schools of the time.
The over-arching question emerged, How would educational institutions arrange their time? The term “block-scheduling” became the “catch-phrase” for the strategy; however, it had several different meanings that were reflected in a myriad of schedule options and the subject of many academic studies.
In general, block scheduling organizes a course around one semester of 90 minute classes instead of two semesters of 50 minute classes. Various forms of block scheduling have been developed from this concept: the straight forward four 90 minute periods per semester (4X4); a two day rotating system with students completing eight classes during the year (A/B) or two to three 90 minute blocks and a variable or split 45 minute class (modified block). These classes can be scheduled in various combinations according to the subject content or desired flexibility (Canady & Rettig, 1995).
In most institutions, change is difficult. Educational institutions are no different in many ways as those in the world of business. Those who are in favor of some form of block scheduling base their support on more than just student achievement. Proponents of block scheduling argued that an impersonal environment was created by the “assembly-line, single-period day schedule” and the disciplinary problems were exacerbated by schedules that release thousands of students into hallways six to ten times a day for 3 to 5 minutes of noise and stress (Canady & Rettig, 1995).
The detractors point toward a lack of data to prove increased student achievement as well as many peripheral items as well. The American Federation of Teachers in their September 1999 publication listed five pitfalls of block scheduling:
1. Cognitive science shows that regular review, spaced out over a long period of time, is beneficial to long-term memory of subject matter. Block scheduling diminishes opportunities for review, especially where “year-long” courses are compressed into a single semester. Thus, the practice may actually serve to diminish student performance.
2. Ninety minutes is a long time to hold students’ attention, and few teachers or other instructional staff has been trained in how to use this period of time effectively.
3. Student transfers to and from schools with block schedules can be highly problematic; in some subjects, an entire year’s curriculum is lost through a mid-year transfer.
4. Missing one day of school under block scheduling can be like missing almost a week under traditional scheduling. For students who miss a week due to illness or other problems, catching up may be almost impossible.
5. Some block schedules actually result in less instructional time. A 55 minute class that meets five times a week gives the instructor 550 minutes every two weeks, for example, whereas a 90 minute meeting on alternating days for two weeks only gives the instructor 450 minutes.
Imposing a scheduling model on a school will not ensure success. The research recommends that a minimum of two years planning time should be considered before implementation is suggested (Northwest Regional Educational Lab 1990). Part of that planning would have to include studying how the new block may effect achievement, the ability for students to take the necessary courses to graduate on time, and the training for teachers that is imperative to a block schedule’s success.
There have been many studies completed since the days of J. Lloyd Trump. Studies using surveys to assess teacher attitudes toward block scheduling have often been positive (Pullen, Morse, & Varrella, 1998; Sessoms, 1995; Tanner, 1996). There have also been many studies conducted that looked at how block scheduling affected grade point averages (Buckman, King & Ryan, 1995; Edwards, 1993; Holmberg, 1996; Schoenstein, 1995). Most of these studies support the longer traditional schedule over the 4X4 block schedule in science, for example, yet support the 4X4 block schedule in math and social studies. (Veal & Schreiber, 1999). Graduation rates have also been reported to benefit from the 4X4 schedule (Carroll, 1995; Monroe, 1989; Sessoms, 1995). The findings of these studies have been inconsistent, sometimes reporting gains for students on block scheduling, sometimes reporting no differences, and sometimes reporting losses compared with students on traditional scheduling (Veal & Schreiber, 1999).
The largest study ever done on the block scheduling issue in the United States was conducted by the North Carolina Department of Public Instruction in the mid-1990′s. The study compared students across the state that were part of a block scheduling school (usually 4X4) to traditionally scheduled students. This study looked at the impact on state mandated end of course assessments. According to the literature, most of the schools on block schedules came from “poor and traditionally low achieving areas” so the results had to be adjusted. According to the adjusted figures, in 1995, the first year of the study, the block students were outscoring the traditional students in most subjects tested. But that edge was “whittled” over time so that by 1998, students from both types of schools were scoring comparably on tests in four of five subjects (Viadero, 2001).
The North Carolina study also pointed out several additional factors that seem to have some significance. The study showed that the block schedule resulted in students being in class for fifteen fewer hours over the course of a semester. Surprisingly, these students performed just as well as they had before with the traditional schedule. The study also pointed out that the block schedule did allow students to enroll in additional classes and practically doubled teacher planning time.
On the other side of the issue, and the border for that matter, was a study completed in Canada in which more than 30,000 students participated. The results of the survey indicated that the 4X4 block schedule had a slightly negative impact on students in both math and science. This study, directed by Dr. David J. Bateson at the University of British Columbia sorted the math and science scores of 10th graders according to the “type” of school attended. The study looked at schools that were year-round, semester based, and quarter organized. Batesman himself acknowledged design problems in the study due to the test which was conducted in May. According to analysis of the study, the May test date meant that year-round students had yet to receive three to seven weeks of instruction which is the equivalent to six to fourteen weeks for semester students and twelve to twenty-eight weeks for quarter students. Although the study was not designed to address the effects of block scheduling, many researchers felt that the relationship between a “timetable pattern” and academic achievement gave the strongest relationship.
Dr. Robert Lynn Canady, a professor emeritus at the University of Virginia and a well-known proponent of block scheduling criticized the study. Canady reported that Canadian classes ranging from 60 to 80 minutes in length were shorter than in most US schools using the same sort of schedule, teachers got less time than US teachers for professional development or lesson planning, and that the researchers failed to account for any socioeconomic differences among the schools studied (Viadero, 2001).
In what almost seemed a response to the Canadian study, in 1994 Coventry ( Ohio ) local schools decided to find out for themselves if this block scheduling concept truly would make a difference. The impetus for this study was the conflicting results of so many studies that had been previously completed.
The structure of the school schedule made for fertile research grounds. Virtually the entire student population attended classes taught in both the traditional and block formats. Most students choose a mixture of block and traditional formats for their core courses. Course content for core courses was the same whether taken in block or traditional format. It was assumed that students taking English at the sophomore level should experience the same course content in both the traditional and block formats. It was hypothesized that some of the variance in performance on subject tests could be accounted for by the style of scheduling over and above other significant variables (Hess, Wronkovich, Robinson 1999).
The students involved in this study were given “pre” and “post” test to determine progress within the type of schedule assigned. Significant results were discovered in both English and biology where the type of schedule, block or traditional, significantly predicted how well the student would do on the end-of-course assessment. Block scheduling seemed to be the common denominator to better success in these subjects. Other areas lacked a significant correlation.
In 1998 David Hottenstein surveyed 24 high schools in several states and discovered additional positive results of block scheduling ( Hottenstein, 1998). In
his research he was able to collect data both before and after a block schedule model was implemented. He used surveys given to students, teachers, and administrators to measure any differences. Prior to block scheduling, only 33% of respondents supported extended class schedules. Once implemented, however, 80% said that longer classes were better than shorter classes. Teacher satisfaction with block scheduling increased from 52% to 87% (Queen, 2000).
There are many who criticize Hottenstein’s results due to the sample of the survey. These detractors point out that 150 schools in Virginia , Pennsylvania , Maryland , Alabama , North Carolina , South Carolina , and Colorado were solicited with only 24 responding. To make matters worse, none of the surveys returned obtained a 100% response rate to every question. It is the critic’s contention that the sparse return of the information places serious limitations on the validity of the study.
A 1995 study by Carl Glickman, a University of Georgia professor, looked at 820 high schools and 11,000 students. He found that in schools where active learning methods were predominant, students had significantly higher achievement as measured by the National Assessment of Educational Progress. This was connected to block scheduling studies because teachers at schools with block scheduling may use longer instructional periods to engage students in experiments, writing, and other forms of active learning, as opposed to merely lecturing students (Education World, 1997).
Also in 1995, a study by Donald Hackmann seems to relate to the active learning issue. Hackmann’s study reported that the first year on block scheduling was the most challenging for teachers and principals (Hackman, 1995). This research points to the absolute necessity of training teachers to use the time given in the most efficient manner possible.
Although this study was limited to the entire student body of just one school, the results were nevertheless interesting. The results of the surveys given showed that 47 percent liked the block schedule (42 percent preferred it over the traditional daily schedule), but one in four students did not like the new schedule. It was noted that 62% of the students found the longer periods helpful for elective courses, but only 35% of the students preferred longer periods for core academic subjects. Teachers approved of the block schedule at a 77% satisfaction rate. Almost all teachers said they had made changes in their teaching strategies, and 63 percent said they were covering less content (Hackman and Waters 1998).
Perhaps one of the most convincing studies available was done by Laura C. Stokes and Joe W. Wilson who are both professors of education at the University of North Alabama , Florence . This study, “A Longitudinal Study of Teachers’ Perceptions of the Effectiveness of Block Versus Traditional Scheduling” compared teachers’ perception of the block schedule after one and two years to the perceptions of those same teachers at the end of the third and fourth years. The samples for both studies were the same four high schools and only teachers who were employed during the first study were questioned in the second survey.
The study formed two research questions:
1. After an extended period of use (three or four years), what are teachers’ perceptions of block scheduling as they relate to its effectiveness, factors critical to implementation, advantages of block scheduling, measurable outcomes, and factors critical in maintenance?
2. What are teachers perceptions of the block schedule after an extended period of use (three or four years) as compared with their initial perceptions as measured in the 1996-97 school year after one or two years of block scheduling?
To structure data analysis in answering the second research question, three research hypotheses were formulated:
Hypotheses 1 There will be no significant relationship between teachers’ initial perceptions of the effectiveness of block scheduling and their perceptions of its effectiveness after extended use.
Hypotheses 2 There will be no significant relationship between subject areas taught and teachers’ perceptions of the effectiveness of block scheduling after extended use.
Hypotheses 3 There will be no significant relationship between years of teaching experience and teachers’ opinions of block scheduling after extended use (Stokes and Wilson 2000).
The results of this study found that teachers at these particular schools favored block scheduling to be more effective both at the end of the two-year study as well as the four year study. Teachers once again pointed to increased planning time, greater expectations for student achievement, and greater opportunities to gain credits toward graduation to be the most attractive features of the block schedule. The passage of time seemed to solidify the perceptions of the schedule rather than detract from its effectiveness.
One of the difficulties in trying to make sense of the research on block scheduling lies in the multiple possibilities of block scheduling that exists. There are many studies that have been done on small segments of the population that causes one to wonder about the external validity of the work that has been done. As previously discussed, the few larger studies that have been completed have several limitations as well.
So the question remains…To what extent does school structure influence the behavior of students? The research points to block scheduling as a part to the whole picture. Areas such as curriculum, student discipline, and teacher training must be addressed at the same time as the type of schedule under consideration.
After a review of much of the available literature, one would probably be safe to say that there is a bulk of evidence to unequivocally state that changing to a block schedule will not have a negative effect on the students involved. It seems much more difficult to say that the change in schedule will definitively raise student achievement. There is little argument, however, as to the effects of block scheduling on students as it relates to discipline issues. The question that permeates this discussion, however, is whether the child’s behavior is affected or does the schedule not place the student in as many situations where trouble may occur. Since a very large portion of disciplinary referrals occur during the change of classes, less class changes should and do have an obvious impact. Attached to this argument are those studies that report fewer discipline referrals should correlate to greater student achievement.
Perhaps the greatest impact on student behavior as it relates to achievement is the manner in which the time is used. In a 1996 article by Cunningham and Nogle, it was reported that the most useful instructional practices in block classes included warm-up games, cooperative learning groups, large group discussions, interactive lectures coupled with discussion, peer teaching, guided practice activities, discovery method, creative projects, and the use of games and puzzles (Cunningham & Nogle, 1996).
As one studies the implementation of any new structure in a business or school, one must look at a complete package of strategies that are inherent to the entire concept. Just as in the Siberian plains, it doesn’t do much good to change underwear just for the sake of changing. For if the change is just for the sake of change, one may end up in a situation that is not as beneficial as the one in which he currently exists. Block scheduling certainly does have an impact on student behavior, however, the extent of that change depends on many other factors that are critical to its success.
REFERENCES
Buckman, D. ; King, B. ; and Ryan S. (1995) Block Scheduling: A Means to Improve
School Climate, NASSP Bulletin, 79, 9-18.
Canady, Robert L. , and Rettig, Michael D. (1995) Block Scheduling: A Catalyst for
Change in High School, Princeton, NJ : Eye on Education.
Carroll, J. M. (1995) The Copernican Plan Evaluated: The Evolution of a Revolution. Phi
Delta Kappan, 76, 104-110, 112-113.
Cunningham, Daniel, and Nogel, Sue Ann (1996) Implementing a Semesterized Block
Schedule: Six Key Elements, High School Magazine, 63, 29-33.
Donahoe, Tom (1993) Finding the Way: Structure, Time, and Culture in School
Improvement, Phi Delta Kappan, December, 298-305.
Education World (1997) Block Scheduling: A Solution or a Problem?, School
Administrators Article.
Edwards, C. (1993) The 4X4 Plan, Educational Leadership, 53 (3): 16-19.
Hackman, Donald G. (1995) Ten Guidelines for Implementing Block Scheduling,
Educational Leadership, November, 24-27.
Hackman, Donald G. , and Waters, David L. (1998) Breaking Away from Tradition: The
Farmington High School Restructuring Experience, NASSP Bulletin, March 1998, 83-92.
Hess, C. , Wronkovich, M. , and Robinson, J. (1999) Measured Outcomes of Learning
Under Block Scheduling, NASSP Bulletin, December, 1999, 87-95.
Holmberg, T. (1996) Block Scheduling versus Traditional Education: A Comparison of
Grade-Point Averages and ACT Scores, Unpublished doctoral dissertation,
University of Wisconsin , Eau Claire .
Hottenstein, David S. (1998) Intensive Scheduling: Restructuring America ‘s Secondary
Schools Through Time Management ( Thousand Oaks, CA : Corwin Press)
Monroe, M. J. (1989) BLOCK: Successful Alternative Format Addressing Learner Needs,
Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Association of Teacher Educators,
St. Louis, MO.
National Commission on Time and Learning (1994) Prisoners of Time ( Washington, DC :
US Government Printing Office, 1994).
Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory, Rural Education Program (1999) Literature
Search on the Question: What are the Advantages and Disadvantages of Various Scheduling Options for Small Secondary Schools (High Schools and Middle Schools)?, Portland, Oregon , 329-385.
Pullen, S. L. , Morse, J. , and Varrella, G. F. (1998) A Second Look at Block Scheduling,
Paper presented at the Annual Conference of the National Association of Science Teachers, Las Vegas, NV .
Queen, J. Allen (2000) Block Scheduling Revisited, Phi Delta Kappan, 82, 214-222.
Schoenstein, R. (1995) The New School on the Block Schedule, The Executive Educator,
17(8): 18-21.
Sessoms, J. C. (1995) Teachers Perceptions of Three Models of High School Scheduling,
Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Virginia , Charlottesville .
Stokes, Laura C. and Wilson, Joe W. (2000) A Longitudinal Study of Teachers’
Perceptions of the Effectiveness of Block Versus Traditional Scheduling, NASSP
Bulletin, 84(619), 90-98.
Tanner, B. M. (1996) Perceived Staff Needs of Teachers in High Schools with Block
Schedules, Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Virginia , Charlottesville .
Veal, William R. , and Schreiber, James (1999) Block Scheduling Effects on a State
Mandated Test of Basic Skills, Education Policy Analysis Archives, 7(29), 1-13.
Viadero, Debra (2001) Changing Times, Education Week
Does the Implementation of Block Scheduling
Have An Effect on Student Behavior?
It was a cold night on the Siberian plains. Russian soldiers were huddled together in an attempt to keep warm on this, the beginning of their third consecutive month of duty. The commander of the Russian Army arrived just before the changing of the guard. There was much excitement as the word spread that the commander had an important announcement to make.
“I have some good news and some bad news,” said the Commander. “First, the good news…Today, everyone in this army troop will get a change of underwear!”
The crowd erupted into boisterous cheers.
“But now for the bad news…Boris, you must change with Ivan, and Mikahl, you must change with Nikki. ”
Since the late 1950′s and the work of James B. Conant on the comprehensive high school, change in education has been much the same as this scenario in Siberia. In many cases, the name has changed, but the ideas remain the same. In order for one to determine the extent to which school structure influences the behavior of students, one must first find some area of the school environment that has changed enough to test this difference.
Looking back to the same time frame when Conant published his first book, one may find the seeds to an issue that has been a robust conversation in education over the last ten years, the institution of the block scheduling model. Since the idea of changing traditional school schedules emerged on the scene, there have been passionate proponents, opponents, and many studies that attempt to prove a particular way of thinking about time and how it relates to student performance. The change, to many schools buying into block scheduling, has been gradual over the past fifty years, and now there may be a swing of the pendulum for many of those same schools to revert back to the traditional schedule.
In 1959, J. Lloyd Trump proposed eliminating the traditional high school schedule and instituting classes of varying lengths in accordance with the instructional needs of students. The Trump Plan allowed for a class to meet for a 40 minute lecture, a 100 minute lab, and a 20 minute help session each week, whereas other classes could be short periods of 20 to 30 minutes. Trump encouraged teachers using his design to experiment with a variety of instructional strategies (Queen, 2000).
This was to be the impetus of the block scheduling concept that continues to divide educators across the United States and Canada . As in most situations, it seems that both sides of the issue produce valid arguments and studies to support their viewpoint.
Since Trump’s work in 1959, creative scheduling practices were a “hit-and-miss” proposition. It was not until A Nation at Risk in 1983 challenged educational leaders to look for alternative strategies that would increase student achievement that the real “thinking” on block scheduling truly began. In 1993 Tom Donahoe argued that the restructuring of schools should include the formal rearranging of the use of time in order to promote an active culture that would improve student learning (Donahoe, 1993). In 1994 the National Commission on time and learning published its report, Prisoner of Time, which warned that schools must be reinvented to focus on learning, not time (NCTL 1994). This government document seemed to be a mandate for educational leaders to change the traditional school schedule to accommodate a different type of education in the schools of the time.
The over-arching question emerged, How would educational institutions arrange their time? The term “block-scheduling” became the “catch-phrase” for the strategy; however, it had several different meanings that were reflected in a myriad of schedule options and the subject of many academic studies.
In general, block scheduling organizes a course around one semester of 90 minute classes instead of two semesters of 50 minute classes. Various forms of block scheduling have been developed from this concept: the straight forward four 90 minute periods per semester (4X4); a two day rotating system with students completing eight classes during the year (A/B) or two to three 90 minute blocks and a variable or split 45 minute class (modified block). These classes can be scheduled in various combinations according to the subject content or desired flexibility (Canady & Rettig, 1995).
In most institutions, change is difficult. Educational institutions are no different in many ways as those in the world of business. Those who are in favor of some form of block scheduling base their support on more than just student achievement. Proponents of block scheduling argued that an impersonal environment was created by the “assembly-line, single-period day schedule” and the disciplinary problems were exacerbated by schedules that release thousands of students into hallways six to ten times a day for 3 to 5 minutes of noise and stress (Canady & Rettig, 1995).
The detractors point toward a lack of data to prove increased student achievement as well as many peripheral items as well. The American Federation of Teachers in their September 1999 publication listed five pitfalls of block scheduling:
1. Cognitive science shows that regular review, spaced out over a long period of time, is beneficial to long-term memory of subject matter. Block scheduling diminishes opportunities for review, especially where “year-long” courses are compressed into a single semester. Thus, the practice may actually serve to diminish student performance.
2. Ninety minutes is a long time to hold students’ attention, and few teachers or other instructional staff has been trained in how to use this period of time effectively.
3. Student transfers to and from schools with block schedules can be highly problematic; in some subjects, an entire year’s curriculum is lost through a mid-year transfer.
4. Missing one day of school under block scheduling can be like missing almost a week under traditional scheduling. For students who miss a week due to illness or other problems, catching up may be almost impossible.
5. Some block schedules actually result in less instructional time. A 55 minute class that meets five times a week gives the instructor 550 minutes every two weeks, for example, whereas a 90 minute meeting on alternating days for two weeks only gives the instructor 450 minutes.
Imposing a scheduling model on a school will not ensure success. The research recommends that a minimum of two years planning time should be considered before implementation is suggested (Northwest Regional Educational Lab 1990). Part of that planning would have to include studying how the new block may effect achievement, the ability for students to take the necessary courses to graduate on time, and the training for teachers that is imperative to a block schedule’s success.
There have been many studies completed since the days of J. Lloyd Trump. Studies using surveys to assess teacher attitudes toward block scheduling have often been positive (Pullen, Morse, & Varrella, 1998; Sessoms, 1995; Tanner, 1996). There have also been many studies conducted that looked at how block scheduling affected grade point averages (Buckman, King & Ryan, 1995; Edwards, 1993; Holmberg, 1996; Schoenstein, 1995). Most of these studies support the longer traditional schedule over the 4X4 block schedule in science, for example, yet support the 4X4 block schedule in math and social studies. (Veal & Schreiber, 1999). Graduation rates have also been reported to benefit from the 4X4 schedule (Carroll, 1995; Monroe, 1989; Sessoms, 1995). The findings of these studies have been inconsistent, sometimes reporting gains for students on block scheduling, sometimes reporting no differences, and sometimes reporting losses compared with students on traditional scheduling (Veal & Schreiber, 1999).
The largest study ever done on the block scheduling issue in the United States was conducted by the North Carolina Department of Public Instruction in the mid-1990′s. The study compared students across the state that were part of a block scheduling school (usually 4X4) to traditionally scheduled students. This study looked at the impact on state mandated end of course assessments. According to the literature, most of the schools on block schedules came from “poor and traditionally low achieving areas” so the results had to be adjusted. According to the adjusted figures, in 1995, the first year of the study, the block students were outscoring the traditional students in most subjects tested. But that edge was “whittled” over time so that by 1998, students from both types of schools were scoring comparably on tests in four of five subjects (Viadero, 2001).
The North Carolina study also pointed out several additional factors that seem to have some significance. The study showed that the block schedule resulted in students being in class for fifteen fewer hours over the course of a semester. Surprisingly, these students performed just as well as they had before with the traditional schedule. The study also pointed out that the block schedule did allow students to enroll in additional classes and practically doubled teacher planning time.
On the other side of the issue, and the border for that matter, was a study completed in Canada in which more than 30,000 students participated. The results of the survey indicated that the 4X4 block schedule had a slightly negative impact on students in both math and science. This study, directed by Dr. David J. Bateson at the University of British Columbia sorted the math and science scores of 10th graders according to the “type” of school attended. The study looked at schools that were year-round, semester based, and quarter organized. Batesman himself acknowledged design problems in the study due to the test which was conducted in May. According to analysis of the study, the May test date meant that year-round students had yet to receive three to seven weeks of instruction which is the equivalent to six to fourteen weeks for semester students and twelve to twenty-eight weeks for quarter students. Although the study was not designed to address the effects of block scheduling, many researchers felt that the relationship between a “timetable pattern” and academic achievement gave the strongest relationship.
Dr. Robert Lynn Canady, a professor emeritus at the University of Virginia and a well-known proponent of block scheduling criticized the study. Canady reported that Canadian classes ranging from 60 to 80 minutes in length were shorter than in most US schools using the same sort of schedule, teachers got less time than US teachers for professional development or lesson planning, and that the researchers failed to account for any socioeconomic differences among the schools studied (Viadero, 2001).
In what almost seemed a response to the Canadian study, in 1994 Coventry ( Ohio ) local schools decided to find out for themselves if this block scheduling concept truly would make a difference. The impetus for this study was the conflicting results of so many studies that had been previously completed.
The structure of the school schedule made for fertile research grounds. Virtually the entire student population attended classes taught in both the traditional and block formats. Most students choose a mixture of block and traditional formats for their core courses. Course content for core courses was the same whether taken in block or traditional format. It was assumed that students taking English at the sophomore level should experience the same course content in both the traditional and block formats. It was hypothesized that some of the variance in performance on subject tests could be accounted for by the style of scheduling over and above other significant variables (Hess, Wronkovich, Robinson 1999).
The students involved in this study were given “pre” and “post” test to determine progress within the type of schedule assigned. Significant results were discovered in both English and biology where the type of schedule, block or traditional, significantly predicted how well the student would do on the end-of-course assessment. Block scheduling seemed to be the common denominator to better success in these subjects. Other areas lacked a significant correlation.
In 1998 David Hottenstein surveyed 24 high schools in several states and discovered additional positive results of block scheduling ( Hottenstein, 1998). In
his research he was able to collect data both before and after a block schedule model was implemented. He used surveys given to students, teachers, and administrators to measure any differences. Prior to block scheduling, only 33% of respondents supported extended class schedules. Once implemented, however, 80% said that longer classes were better than shorter classes. Teacher satisfaction with block scheduling increased from 52% to 87% (Queen, 2000).
There are many who criticize Hottenstein’s results due to the sample of the survey. These detractors point out that 150 schools in Virginia , Pennsylvania , Maryland , Alabama , North Carolina , South Carolina , and Colorado were solicited with only 24 responding. To make matters worse, none of the surveys returned obtained a 100% response rate to every question. It is the critic’s contention that the sparse return of the information places serious limitations on the validity of the study.
A 1995 study by Carl Glickman, a University of Georgia professor, looked at 820 high schools and 11,000 students. He found that in schools where active learning methods were predominant, students had significantly higher achievement as measured by the National Assessment of Educational Progress. This was connected to block scheduling studies because teachers at schools with block scheduling may use longer instructional periods to engage students in experiments, writing, and other forms of active learning, as opposed to merely lecturing students (Education World, 1997).
Also in 1995, a study by Donald Hackmann seems to relate to the active learning issue. Hackmann’s study reported that the first year on block scheduling was the most challenging for teachers and principals (Hackman, 1995). This research points to the absolute necessity of training teachers to use the time given in the most efficient manner possible.
Although this study was limited to the entire student body of just one school, the results were nevertheless interesting. The results of the surveys given showed that 47 percent liked the block schedule (42 percent preferred it over the traditional daily schedule), but one in four students did not like the new schedule. It was noted that 62% of the students found the longer periods helpful for elective courses, but only 35% of the students preferred longer periods for core academic subjects. Teachers approved of the block schedule at a 77% satisfaction rate. Almost all teachers said they had made changes in their teaching strategies, and 63 percent said they were covering less content (Hackman and Waters 1998).
Perhaps one of the most convincing studies available was done by Laura C. Stokes and Joe W. Wilson who are both professors of education at the University of North Alabama , Florence . This study, “A Longitudinal Study of Teachers’ Perceptions of the Effectiveness of Block Versus Traditional Scheduling” compared teachers’ perception of the block schedule after one and two years to the perceptions of those same teachers at the end of the third and fourth years. The samples for both studies were the same four high schools and only teachers who were employed during the first study were questioned in the second survey.
The study formed two research questions:
1. After an extended period of use (three or four years), what are teachers’ perceptions of block scheduling as they relate to its effectiveness, factors critical
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Graphene – inflatable cervical collar manufacturer – finger splint
Description
A simple, non-technical definition has been given in a recent review on graphene:
Graphene is a flat monolayer of carbon atoms tightly packed into a two-dimensional (2D) honeycomb lattice, and is a basic building block for graphitic materials of all other dimensionalities. It can be wrapped up into 0D fullerenes, rolled into 1D nanotubes or stacked into 3D graphite.
Previously, graphene was also defined in the chemical literature as follows:
A single carbon layer of the graphitic structure can be considered as the final member of the series naphthalene, anthracene, coronene, etc. and the term graphene should therefore be used to designate the individual carbon layers in graphite intercalation compounds. Use of the term “graphene layer” is also considered for the general terminology of carbons.
The IUPAC compendium of technology states: “previously, descriptions such as graphite layers, carbon layers, or carbon sheets have been used for the term graphene. . . it is not correct to use for a single layer a term which includes the term graphite, which would imply a three-dimensional structure. The term graphene should be used only when the reactions, structural relations or other properties of individual layers are discussed. ” In this regard, graphene has been referred to as an infinite alternant (only six-member carbon ring) polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH). The largest molecule of this type consists of 222 atoms and is 10 benzene rings across. It has proven difficult to synthesize even slightly bigger molecules, and they still remain “a dream of many organic and polymer chemists”. Furthermore, ab initio calculations show that a graphene sheet is thermodynamically unstable with respect to other fullerene structures if its size is less than about 10 nm (raphene is the least stable structure until about 6000 atoms5]). [improper synthesis?]
Also, a definition of “isolated or free standing graphene” has recently been proposed: “graphene is a single atomic plane of graphite, whichnd this is essentials sufficiently isolated from its environment to be considered free-standing. ” This definition is narrower than the definitions given above and refers to cleaved, transferred and suspended graphene monolayers. Other forms of graphene, such as graphene grown on various metals, can also become free-standing if transferred to, e. g. , SiO2 or suspended. A new example of isolated graphene is graphene on SiC after its passivation with hydrogen.
Occurrence and production
Graphene is essentially an isolated atomic plane of graphite. Therefore, from this perspective, graphene has been known since the invention of X-ray crystallography. Graphene planes become even better separated in intercalated graphite compounds. In 2004 physicists from University of Manchester and Institute for Microelectronics Technology, Chernogolovka, Russia, found a way to isolate individual graphene planes by using Scotch tape and they also measured electronic properties of the obtained flakes and showed their fantastic quality. In 2005 the same Manchester group together with researchers from the Columbia University (see the History chapter below) demonstrated that quasiparticles in graphene were massless Dirac fermions. These discoveries led to the explosion of interest in graphene.
Since then, hundreds of researchers have entered the area and, naturally, they carried out the extensive search for relevant earlier papers. The first literature review was given by the Manchester pioneers themselves. They cite several papers in which graphene or ultra-thin graphitic layers were epitaxially grown on various substrates. Also, they point out at a number of pre-2004 reports in which intercalated graphite compounds were studied in a transmission electron microscope. In the latter case, researchers occasionally observed extremely thin graphitic flakes (“few-layer graphene” and possibly even individual layers). The oldest such observation was recently discovered by Rodney Ruoff in a 1962 German-language magazine . It is now well known that tiny fragments of graphene sheets are produced (along with quantities of other debris) whenever graphite is abraded, such as when drawing a line with a pencil. There was little interest in this graphitic residue before 2004/05 and, therefore, the discovery of graphene is often attributed to Andre Geim and colleagues who introduced graphene in its modern incarnation, although pedants may argue that this is as accurate as attributing the discovery of America to Columbus.
Graphene produced by exfoliation is presently one of the most expensive materials on Earth, with a sample that can be placed at the cross section of a human hair costing more than $1,000 as of April 2008 (about $100,000,000/cm2). On the other hand, the price of epitaxial graphene on silicon carbide is dominated by the substrate price, which is approximately $100/cm2 as of 2009. This is about a million times cheaper than exfoliated graphene. Even cheaper graphene has been produced by transfer from nickel by Korean researchers, with wafer sizes up to 30″ reported. [citation needed]
In the literature, specifically that of surface science community, graphene has also been commonly referred to as monolayer graphite. This community has intensely studied epitaxial graphene on various surfaces (over 300 articles prior to 2004). In some cases, these graphene layers are coupled to the surfaces weakly enough (by Van der Waals forces) to retain the two dimensional electronic band structure of isolated graphene, as also happens with exfoliated graphene flakes with regard to silicon dioxide.
For example, experiments on epitaxial graphene monolayers on silicon carbide, have provided the demonstration of the spectrum of massless Dirac particles in graphene, which is the hallmark signature of its electronic structure. It was recently shown that even without being transferred graphene on SiC exhibits the properties of massless Dirac fermions such as the anomalous quantum Hall effect. The weak van der Waals forces that provide the cohesion of multilayer graphene stacks do not always affect the electronic properties of the individual graphene layers in the stack. That is, while the electronic properties of certain multilayered epitaxial graphenes are identical to that of a single graphene layer, in other cases the properties are affected as they are for graphene layers in bulk graphite. This effect is theoretically well understood and is related to the symmetry of the interlayer interactions.
Drawing method
In 2004, the British researchers obtained graphene by mechanical exfoliation of graphite. They used Scotch tape to repeatedly split graphite crystals into increasingly thinner pieces. The tape with attached optically transparent flakes was dissolved in acetone and, after a few further steps, the flakes including monolayers were sedimented on a Si wafer. Individual atomic planes were then hunted in an optical microscope. A year later, the researchers simplified the technique and started using dry deposition, avoiding the stage when graphene floated in a liquid. Relatively large crystallites (first, only a few microns in size but, eventually, larger than 1 mm and visible by a naked eye) were obtained by the technique. It is often referred to as a scotch tape or drawing method. The latter name appeared because the dry deposition resembles drawing with a piece of graphite. The key for the success probably was the use of high throughput visual recognition of graphene on a proper chosen substrate, which provides a small but noticeable optical contrast. For an example of what graphene looks like, see its photograph below.
The isolation of graphene led to the current research boom. Previously, free-standing atomic planes were often “presumed not to exist” because they are thermodynamically unstable on a nm scale and, if unsupported, have a tendency to scroll and buckle. It is currently believed that intrinsic microscopic roughening on the scale of 1 nm could be important for the stability of purely 2D crystals. .
It is interesting to note (see Talk:Graphene) that there were a number of previous attempts to make atomically thin graphitic films by using exfoliation techniques similar to the drawing method. Multilayer samples down to 10 nm in thickness were obtained. These efforts were reviewed in . Furthermore, a couple of very old papers was recently unearthed, in which researchers tried to isolate graphene, starting with intercalated compounds (see History and experimental discovery). These papers reported the observation of very thin graphitic fragments (possibly, monolayers) by transmission electron microscopy. Neither of the earlier observations was sufficient to “spark the graphene gold rush”, until the Science paper did so by reporting not only macroscopic samples of extracted atomic planes but, importantly, their unusual properties such as the bipolar transistor effect, ballistic transport of charges, large quantum oscillations, etc. The discovery of such interesting qualities intrinsic to graphene gave an immediate boost to further research, and several groups quickly repeated the initial result and moved further. These breakthroughs also helped to attract attention to other production techniques such as epitaxial growth of ultra-thin graphitic films. In particular, it has later been found that graphene monolayers grown on SiC and Ir are weakly coupled to these substrates (how weakly remains debated) and the graphene-substrate interaction can be passivated further.
Not only graphene but also free-standing atomic planes of boron nitride, mica, dichalcogenides and complex oxides were obtained by using the drawing method. Unlike graphene, the other 2D materials have so far attracted surprisingly little attention.
Epitaxial growth on silicon carbide
Yet another method is to heat silicon carbide to high temperatures (>1100 C) to reduce it to graphene. This process produces a sample size that is dependent upon the size of the SiC substrate used. The face of the silicon carbide used for graphene creation, the silicon-terminated or carbon-terminated, highly influences the thickness, mobility and carrier density of the graphene.
Many important graphene properties have been identified in graphene produced by this method. For example, the electronic band-structure (so-called Dirac cone structure) has been first visualized in this material. Weak anti-localization is observed in this material and not in exfoliated graphene produced by the pencil trace method. Extremely large, temperature independent mobilities have been observed in SiC epitaxial graphene. They approach those in exfoliated graphene placed on silicon oxide but still much lower than mobilities in suspended graphene produced by the drawing method. Most recently, the anomalous quantum Hall effect has been observed in graphene on Si-face and C-face silicon carbide.
Epitaxial graphene on silicon carbide can be patterned using standard microelectronics methods. The possibility of large integrated electronics on SiC epitaxial graphene was first proposed in 2004 by researchers at the Georgia Institute of Technology, only a couple of months after the discovery of isolated graphene made the drawing method. (A patent for graphene based electronics was applied for in 2003 and issued in 2006). Since then, important advances have been made. In 2008, researchers at MIT Lincoln Lab have produced hundreds of transistors on a single chip and in 2009, very high frequency transistors have been produced at the Hughes Research Laboratories on monolayer graphene on silicon carbide.
Epitaxial growth on metal substrates
This method uses the atomic structure of a metal substrate to seed the growth of the graphene (epitaxial growth). Graphene grown on ruthenium doesn’t typically yield a sample with a uniform thickness of graphene layers, and bonding between the bottom graphene layer and the substrate may affect the properties of the carbon layers. Graphene grown on iridium on the other hand is very weakly bonded, uniform in thickness, and can be made highly ordered. Like on many other substrates, graphene on iridium is slightly rippled. Due to the long-range order of these ripples generation of minigaps in the electronic band-structure (Dirac cone) becomes visible. High-quality sheets of few layer graphene exceeding 1 cm2 (0. 2 sq in) in area have been synthesized via chemical vapor deposition on thin nickel films. These sheets have been successfully transferred to various substrates, demonstrating viability for numerous electronic applications. An improvement of this technique has been found in copper foil where the growth automatically stops after a single graphene layer, and arbitrarily large graphene films can be created.
Hydrazine reduction
Researchers have developed a method of placing graphene oxide paper in a solution of pure hydrazine (a chemical compound of nitrogen and hydrogen), which reduces the graphene oxide paper into single-layer graphene.
Sodium reduction of ethanol
A recent publication has described a process for producing gram-quantities of graphene, by the reduction of ethanol by sodium metal, followed by pyrolysis of the ethoxide product, and washing with water to remove sodium salts.
From nanotubes
Experimental methods for the production of graphene ribbons are reported consisting of cutting open nanotubes. In one such method multi walled carbon nanotubes are cut open in solution by action of potassium permanganate and sulfuric acid. In another method graphene nanoribbons are produced by plasma etching of nanotubes partly embedded in a polymer film
Properties
Atomic structure
The atomic structure of isolated, single-layer graphene was studied by transmission electron microscopy (TEM) on sheets of graphene suspended between bars of a metallic grid. Electron diffraction patterns showed the expected hexagonal lattice of graphene. Suspended graphene also showed “rippling” of the flat sheet, with amplitude of about one nanometer. These ripples may be intrinsic to graphene as a result of the instability of two-dimensional crystals, or may be extrinsic, originating from the ubiquitous dirt seen in all TEM images of graphene. Atomic resolution real-space images of isolated, single-layer graphene on silicon dioxide substrates were obtained by scanning tunneling microscopy. Graphene processed using lithographic techniques is covered by photoresist residue, which must be cleaned to obtain atomic-resolution images. Such residue may be the “adsorbates” observed in TEM images, and may explain the rippling of suspended graphene. Rippling of graphene on the silicon dioxide surface was determined by conformation of graphene to the underlying silicon dioxide, and not an intrinsic effect.
Graphene sheets in solid form (density > 1 g/cm3) usually show evidence in diffraction for graphite’s 0. 34 nm (002) layering. This is true even of some single-walled carbon nanostructures. However, unlayered graphene with only (hk0) rings has been found in the core of presolar graphite onions. Transmission electron microscope studies show faceting at defects in flat graphene sheets, and suggest a possible role in this unlayered-graphene for two-dimensional dendritic crystallization from a melt.
Electronic properties
GNR band structure for zig-zag type. Tightbinding calculations show that zigzag type is always metallic.
GNR band structure for arm-chair type. Tightbinding calculations show that armchair type can be semiconducting or metallic depending on width (chirality).
Graphene is quite different from most conventional three-dimensional materials. Intrinsic graphene is a semi-metal or zero-gap semiconductor. Understanding the electronic structure of graphene is the starting point for finding the band structure of graphite. It was realized early on that the E-k relation is linear for low energies near the six corners of the two-dimensional hexagonal Brillouin zone, leading to zero effective mass for electrons and holes. Due to this linear (or onical”) dispersion relation at low energies, electrons and holes near these six points, two of which are inequivalent, behave like relativistic particles described by the Dirac equation for spin 1/2 particles. Hence, the electrons and holes are called Dirac fermions, and the six corners of the Brillouin zone are called the Dirac points. The equation describing the E-k relation is ; where the Fermi velocity vF ~ 106 m/s.
Electronic transport
Experimental results from transport measurements show that graphene has a remarkably high electron mobility at room temperature, with reported values in excess of 15,000 cm2V1s1. Additionally, the symmetry of the experimentally measured conductance indicates that the mobilities for holes and electrons should be nearly the same. The mobility is nearly independent of temperature between 10 K and 100 K, which implies that the dominant scattering mechanism is defect scattering. Scattering by the acoustic phonons of graphene places intrinsic limits on the room temperature mobility to 200,000 cm2V1s1 at a carrier density of 1012 cm2. The corresponding resistivity of the graphene sheet would be 106 cm, less than the resistivity of silver, the lowest resistivity substance known at room temperature. However, for graphene on silicon dioxide substrates, scattering of electrons by optical phonons of the substrate is a larger effect at room temperature than scattering by graphene own phonons, and limits the mobility to 40,000 cm2 V1s1.
Despite the zero carrier density near the Dirac points, graphene exhibits a minimum conductivity on the order of 4e2/h. The origin of this minimum conductivity is still unclear. However, rippling of the graphene sheet or ionized impurities in the SiO2 substrate may lead to local puddles of carriers that allow conduction. Several theories suggest that the minimum conductivity should be 4e2/h; however, most measurements are of order 4e2/h or greater and depend on impurity concentration.
Recent experiments have probed the influence of chemical dopants on the carrier mobility in graphene. Schedin et al. doped graphene with various gaseous species (some acceptors, some donors), and found the initial undoped state of a graphene structure can be recovered by gently heating the graphene in vacuum. They reported that even for chemical dopant concentrations in excess of 1012 cm2 there is no observable change in the carrier mobility. Chen, et al. doped graphene with potassium in ultra high vacuum at low temperature. They found that potassium ions act as expected for charged impurities in graphene, and can reduce the mobility 20-fold. The mobility reduction is reversible on heating the graphene to remove the potassium.
Due to its two-dimensional property, charge fractionalization (where the apparent charge of individual psuedoparticles in low-dimensional systems is less than a single quantum) is thought to occur in graphene. It may therefore be a suitable material for the construction of quantum computers using anyonic circuits.
Optical properties
Photograph of graphene in transmitted light. This one atom thick crystal can be seen with the naked eye because it absorbs approximately 2. 3% of white light, which is times fine-structure constant.
Graphene’s unique electronic properties produce an unexpectedly high opacity for an atomic monolayer, with a startlingly simple value: it absorbs 2. 3% of white light, where is the fine-structure constant. This is “a consequence of the unusual low-energy electronic structure of monolayer graphene that features electron and hole conical bands meeting each other at the Dirac point . . . [which] is qualitatively different from more common quadratic massive bands”. Based on the Slonczewski-Weiss-McClure (SWMcC) band model of graphite, the interatomic distance, hopping value and frequency cancel when the optical conductance is calculated using the Fresnel equations in the thin-film limit.
This has been confirmed experimentally, but the measurement is not precise enough to improve on other techniques for determining the fine-structure constant.
Recently it has been demonstrated that the bandgap of graphene can be tuned from 0 to 0. 25 eV (about 5 micron wavelength) by applying voltage to a dual-gate bilayer graphene field-effect transistor (FET) at room temperature. . The optical response of graphene nanoribbons has also been shown to be tunable into the terahertz regime by an applied magnetic field
Saturable absorption
It is further confirmed that such unique absorption could become saturated when the input optical intensity is above a threshold value. This nonlinear optical behavior is termed saturable absorption and the threshold value is called the saturation fluency. Graphene can be saturated readily under strong excitation over the visible to near-infrared region, due to the universal optical absorption and zero band gap. This has relevance for the mode locking of fiber lasers, where wideband tunability may be obtained using graphene as the saturable absorber. Due to this special property, graphene has wide application in ultrafast photonics.
Spin transport
Graphene is thought to be an ideal material for spintronics due to small spin-orbit interaction and near absence of nuclear magnetic moments in carbon. Electrical spin-current injection and detection in graphene was recently demonstrated up to room temperature. Spin coherence length above 1 micron at room temperature was observed, and control of the spin current polarity with an electrical gate was observed at low temperature.
Anomalous quantum Hall effect
The quantum Hall effect is relevant for accurate measuring standards of electrical quantities, and in 1985 Klaus von Klitzing received the Nobel prize for its discovery. The effect concerns the dependence of a transverse conductivity on a magnetic field, which is perpendicular to a current-carrying stripe. Usually the phenomenon, the quantization of the so-called Hall conductivity xy at integer multiples of the basic quantity e2/h (where e is the elementary electric charge and h is Planck’s constant) can be observed only in very clean Si or GaAs solids, and at very low temperatures around 3 K, and at very high magnetic fields.
Graphene in contrast, besides its high mobility and minimum conductivity, and because of certain pseudo-relativistic peculiarities to be mentioned below, shows particularly interesting behavior just in the presence of a magnetic field and just with respect to the conductivity-quantization: it displays an anomalous quantum Hall effect with the sequence of steps shifted by 1/2 with respect to the standard sequence, and with an additional factor of 4. Thus, in graphene the Hall conductivity is , where n is the above-mentioned integer “Landau level” index, and the double valley and double spin degeneracies give the factor of 4. Moreover, in graphene these remarkable anomalies can even be measured at room temperature, i. e. at roughly 20 C. This anomalous behavior is a direct result of the emergent massless Dirac electrons in graphene. In a magnetic field, their spectrum has a Landau level with energy precisely at the Dirac point. This level is a consequence of the Atiyah-Singer index theorem. and is half-filled in neutral graphene, leading to the “+1/2″ in the Hall conductivity. Bilayer graphene also shows the quantum Hall effect, but with the standard sequence, i. e. with i. e. with only one of the two anomalies. Interestingly, concerning the second anomaly, the first plateau at N = 0 is absent, indicating that bilayer graphene stays metallic at the neutrality point.
Unlike normal metals, the longitudinal resistance of graphene shows maxima rather than minima for integral values of the Landau filling factor in measurements of the Shubnikov-de Haas oscillations, which show a phase shift of , known as Berry phase. The Berry phase arises due to the zero effective carrier mass near the Dirac points. Study of the temperature dependence of the Shubnikov-de Haas oscillations in graphene reveals that the carriers have a non-zero cyclotron mass, despite their zero effective mass from the E-k relation.
Nanostripes: Spin-polarized edge currents
Nanostripes of graphene (in the “zig-zag” orientation), at low temperatures, show spin-polarized metallic edge currents, which also suggests applications in the new field of spintronics. (In the “armchair” orientation, the edges behave like semiconductors. )
Graphene oxide
By oxidizing and chemically processing graphene, and then floating them in water, the graphene flakes form a single sheet and bond very powerfully. These sheets, called Graphene oxide paper have a measured Tensile Modulus of 32 GPa.
Chemical modification
Soluble fragments of graphene can be prepared in the laboratory through chemical modification of graphite. First, microcrystalline graphite is treated with a strongly acidic mixture of sulfuric acid and nitric acid. A series of steps involving oxidation and exfoliation result in small graphene plates with carboxyl groups at their edges. These are converted to acid chloride groups by treatment with thionyl chloride; next, they are converted to the corresponding graphene amide via treatment with octadecylamine. The resulting material (circular graphene layers of 5. 3 angstrom thickness) is soluble in tetrahydrofuran, tetrachloromethane, and dichloroethane.
Full hydrogenation from both sides of graphene sheet results in graphane, but partial hydrogenation leads to hydrogenated graphene
Thermal properties
The near-room temperature thermal conductivity of graphene was recently measured to be between (4. 840. 44) 103 to (5. 300. 48) 103 Wm1K1. These measurements, made by a non-contact optical technique, are in excess of those measured for carbon nanotubes or diamond. It can be shown by using the Wiedemann-Franz law, that the thermal conduction is phonon-dominated. However, for a gated graphene strip, an applied gate bias causing a Fermi energy shift much larger than kBT can cause the electronic contribution to increase and dominate over the phonon contribution at low temperatures. The ballistic thermal conductance of graphene is isotropic.
Potential for this high conductivity can be seen by considering graphite, a 3D version of graphene that has basal plane thermal conductivity of over a 1000 W/mK (comparable to diamond). In graphite, the c-axis (out of plane) thermal conductivity is over a factor of ~100 smaller due to the weak binding forces between basal planes as well as the larger lattice spacing. In addition, the ballistic thermal conductance of a graphene is shown to give the lower limit of the ballistic thermal conductances, per unit circumference, length of carbon nanotubes.
Despite its 2-D nature, graphene has 3 acoustic phonon modes. The two in-plane modes (LA, TA) have a linear dispersion relation, whereas the out of plane mode (ZA) has a quadratic dispersion relation. Due to this, the T2 dependent thermal conductivity contribution of the linear modes is dominated at low temperatures by the T1. 5 contribution of the out of plane mode. Some graphene phonon bands display negative Grneisen parameters. At low temperatures (where most optical modes with positive Grneisen parameters are still not excited) the contribution from the negative Grneisen parameters will be dominant and thermal expansion coefficient (which is directly proportional to Grneisen parameters) negative. The lowest negative Grneisen parameters correspond to the lowest transversal acoustic ZA modes. Phonon frequencies for such modes increase with the in-plane lattice parameter since atoms in the layer upon stretching will be less free to move in the z direction. This is similar to the behavior of a string which is being stretched will have vibrations of smaller amplitude and higher frequency. This phenomenon, named “membrane effect”, was predicted by Lifshitz in 1952.
Mechanical properties
As of 2009, graphene appears the strongest material ever tested. Measurements have shown that graphene has a breaking strength 200 times greater than steel. However, the process of separating it from graphite, where it occurs naturally, will require some technological development before it is economical enough to be used in industrial processes, though this may be changing soon.
Utilizing an atomic force microscope (AFM), the spring constant of suspended graphene sheets have been measured. Graphene sheets, held together by van der Waals forces, were suspended over silicon dioxide cavities where an AFM tip was probed to test its mechanical properties. Its spring constant was in the range 1-5 N/m and the Young’s modulus was 0. 5 TPa, which differs from that of the bulk graphite. These high values make graphene very strong and rigid. These intrinsic properties could lead to utilizing graphene for NEMS applications such as pressure sensors, and resonators.
As is true of all materials, regions of graphene are subject to thermal and quantum fluctuations in relative displacement. Although the amplitude of these fluctuations is bounded in 3D structures (even in the limit of infinite size), the Mermin-Wagner theorem shows that the amplitude of long-wavelength fluctuations will grow logarithmically with the scale of a 2D structure, and would therefore be unbounded in structures of infinite size. Local deformation and elastic strain are negligibly affected by this long-range divergence in relative displacement. It is believed that a sufficiently large 2D structure, in the absence of applied lateral tension, will bend and crumple to form a fluctuating 3D structure. Researchers have observed ripples in suspended layers of graphene, and it has been proposed that the ripples are caused by thermal fluctuations in the material. As a consequence of these dynamical deformations, it is debatable whether graphene is truly a 2D structure.
Potential applications
Single molecule gas detection
Graphene makes an excellent sensor due to its 2D structure. The fact that its entire volume is exposed to its surrounding makes it very efficient to detect adsorbed molecules. Molecule detection is indirect: as a gas molecule adsorbs to the surface of graphene, the location of adsorption experiences a local change in electrical resistance. While this effect occurs in other materials, graphene is superior due to its high electrical conductivity (even when few carriers are present) and low noise which makes this change in resistance detectable.
Graphene nanoribbons
Graphene nanoribbons (GNRs) are essentially single layers of graphene that are cut in a particular pattern to give it certain electrical properties. Depending on how the un-bonded edges are configured, they can either be in a zigzag or armchair configuration. Calculations based on tight binding predict that zigzag GNRs are always metallic while armchairs can be either metallic or semiconducting, depending on their width. However, recent density functional theory calculations show that armchair nanoribbons are semiconducting with an energy gap scaling with the inverse of the GNR width. Indeed, experimental results show that the energy gaps do increase with decreasing GNR width. However, as of February 2008, no experimental results have measured the energy gap of a GNR and identified the exact edge structure. Zigzag nanoribbons are also semiconducting and present spin polarized edges. Their 2D structure, high electrical and thermal conductivity, and low noise also make GNRs a possible alternative to copper for integrated circuit interconnects. Some research is also being done to create quantum dots by changing the width of GNRs at select points along the ribbon, creating quantum confinement.
Graphene transistors
Due to its high electronic quality, graphene has also attracted the interest of technologists who see them as a way of constructing ballistic transistors. Graphene exhibits a pronounced response to perpendicular external electric fields allowing one to built FETs (field-effect transistors). In their 2004 paper, the Manchester group demonstrated FETs with a “rather modest” on-off ratio of ~30 at room temperature. In 2006, Georgia Tech researchers announced that they had successfully built an all-graphene planar FET with side gates. Their devices showed changes of 2% at cryogenic temperatures. The first top-gated FET (on-off ratio of
Facing the fact that current graphene transistors show a very poor on-off ratio, researchers are trying to find ways for improvement. In 2008 researchers of AMICA and University of Manchester demonstrated a new switching effect in graphene field-effect devices. This switching effect is based on a reversible chemical modification of the graphene layer and gives an on-off ratio of greater than six orders of magnitude. These reversible switches could potentially be applied to nonvolatile memories.
In 2009 researchers at the Politecnico di Milano demonstrated four different types of logic gates, each comprised of a single graphene transistor. In the same year, the Massachusetts Institute of Technology researchers built an experimental graphene chip known as a frequency multiplier. It is capable of taking an incoming electrical signal of a certain frequency and producing an output signal that is a multiple of that frequency. Although these graphene chips open up a range of new applications their practical use is limited by a very small voltage gain (typically, the amplitude of the output signal is about 40 times less than that of the input signal). Moreover, none of these circuits was demonstrated to operate at frequencies higher than 25 kHz.
In February 2010, researchers at IBM reported that they have been able to create graphene transistors with an on and off rate of 100 gigahertz, far exceeding the rates of previous attempts, and exceeding the speed of silicon. The graphene transistors made at IBM were made using extant, silicon-manufacturing equipment, meaning that for the first time graphene transistors are a conceivable–though still fanciful–replacement for silicon
Integrated circuits
Graphene has the ideal properties to be an excellent component of integrated circuits. Graphene has a high carrier mobility, as well as low noise allowing it to be utilized as the channel in a FET. The issue is that single sheets of graphene are hard to produce, and even harder to make on top of an appropriate substrate. Researchers are looking into methods of transferring single graphene sheets from their source of origin (mechanical exfoliation on SiO2 / Si or thermal graphitization of a SiC surface) onto a target substrate of interest. In 2008, the smallest transistor so far, one atom thick, 10 atoms wide was made of graphene. IBM announced in December 2008 that they have fabricated and characterized graphene transistors operating at GHz frequencies. In May 2009 a team from Stanford University, University of Florida and Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory announced that they have created an n-type transistor, which means that both and n and p-type transistors have now been created with graphene. At the same time, the researchers at the Politecnico di Milano demonstrated the first functional graphene integrated circuit a complementary inverter consisting of one p- and one n-type graphene transistor. However, this inverter also suffered from a very low voltage gain. According to a January 2010 report from the UK’s National Physical Laboratory, a joint group of European research groups (including Politecnico di Milano (Italy), Chalmers University of Technology (Sweden), Linkping University (Sweden) and Lancaster University (UK), as well as the the NPL) epitaxially grew layers on silicon carbide, in a quantity and with quality suitable for mass-production of integrated circuits. At high temperatures, the Quantum Hall Effect was accurately measured in these samples by the Quantum Detection Group, a division of the NPL.
Transparent conducting electrodes
Graphene’s high electrical conductivity and high optical transparency make it a candidate for transparent conducting electrodes, required for such applications as touchscreens, liquid crystal displays, organic photovoltaic cells, and Organic light-emitting diodes. In particular, graphene’s mechanical strength and flexibility are advantageous compared to indium tin oxide, which is brittle, and graphene films may be deposited from solution over large areas.
Large-area, continuous, transparent, and highly conducting few-layered graphene ms were produced by chemical vapor deposition and used as anode for application in photovoltaic devices. A greatly improved power conversion efficiency (PCE) up to 1. 71% was demonstrated, which is 55. 2% of the PCE of a control device based on indium-tin-oxide.
Reference material for characterizing electroconductive and transparent materials
One layer of graphene absorbs 2. 3 % of white light. This property was used to define the Conductivity of Transparency that combines the sheet resistance and the transparency. This parameter was used to compare different materials without the use of two independent parameters.
Ultracapacitors
Due to the incredibly high surface area to mass ratio of graphene, one potential application is in the conductive plates of ultracapacitors. It is believed that graphene could be used to produce ultracapacitors with a greater energy storage density than is currently available.
Graphene biodevices
Graphene’s modifiable chemistry, large surface area, atomic-thickness and molecularly-gatable structure make antibody-functionalized-graphene-sheets excellent candidate for mammalian and microbial detection and diagnosis.
Energy of the electrons with wavenumber k in graphene, calculated in the Tight Binding-approximation. The unoccupied rsp. occupied states, colored in blue-red rsp. yellow-green, touch each other without energy gap exactly at the above-mentioned six k-vectors.
Pseudo-relativistic theory
The electrical properties of graphene can be described by a conventional tight-binding model; in this model the energy of the electrons with wavenumber k is
,
with the nearest-neighbor hopping energy 0 2. 8 eV and the lattice constant a 2. 46 . Conduction and valence band, respectively, correspond to the different signs in the above dispersion relation; they touch each other in six points, the “K-values”. However, only two of these six points are independent, whereas the rest is equivalent by symmetry. In the vicinity of the K-points the energy depends linearly on the wavenumber, similar to a relativistic particle. Since an elementary cell of the lattice has a basis of two atoms, the wave function even has an effective 2-spinor structure. As a consequence, at low energies, even neglecting the true spin, the electrons can be described by an equation which is formally equivalent to the massless Dirac equation. Moreover, in the present case this pseudo-relativistic description is restricted to the chiral limit, i. e. , to vanishing rest mass M0, which leads to interesting additional features:
Here vF ~ 106 is the Fermi velocity in graphene which replaces the velocity of light in the Dirac theory; is the vector of the Pauli matrices, is the two-component wave function of the electrons, and E is their energy.
History and experimental discovery
The term graphene first appeared in 1987 in order to describe single sheets of graphite as one of the constituents of graphite intercalation compounds (GICs); conceptually a GIC is a crystalline salt of the intercalant and graphene. The term was also used in early descriptions of carbon nanotubes, as well as for epitaxial graphene, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons.
Larger graphene molecules or sheets (so that they can be considered as true isolated 2D crystals) cannot be grown even in principle. An article in Physics Today reads:
“Fundamental forces place seemingly insurmountable barriers in the way of creating [2D crystals] . . . Nascent 2D crystallites try to minimize their surface energy and inevitably morph into one of the rich variety of stable 3D structures that occur in soot. But there is a way around the problem. Interactions with 3D structures stabilize 2D crystals during growth. So one can make 2D crystals sandwiched between or placed on top of the atomic planes of a bulk crystal. In that respect, graphene already exists within graphite . . . One can then hope to fool Nature and extract single-atom-thick crystallites at a low enough temperature that they remain in the quenched state prescribed by the original higher-temperature 3D growth. ”
Single layers of graphite were previously (starting from the 1970s) grown epitaxially on top of other materials. This “epitaxial graphene” consists of a single-atom-thick hexagonal lattice of sp2-bonded carbon atoms, as in free-standing graphene. However, there is significant charge transfer from the substrate to the epitaxial graphene, and, in some cases, hybridization between the d orbitals of the substrate atoms and orbitals of graphene, which significantly alters the electronic structure of the epitaxial graphene.
Single layers of graphite were also observed by transmission electron microscopy within bulk materials (see section Occurrence), in particular inside soot obtained by chemical exfoliation. There have also been a number of efforts to make very thin films of graphite by mechanical exfoliation (starting from 1990 and continuing until after 2004) but nothing thinner than 50 to 100 layers was produced during these years.
A key advance in the science of graphene came when Andre Geim and Kostya Novoselov at Manchester University managed to extract single-atom-thick crystallites (graphene) from bulk graphite in 2004. The Manchester researchers pulled out graphene layers from graphite and transferred them onto thin silicon dioxide on a silicon wafer in a process sometimes called micromechanical cleavage or, simply, the Scotch tape technique. The silicon dioxide electrically isolated the graphene, and was weakly interacting with the graphene, providing nearly charge-neutral graphene layers. The silicon beneath the silicon dioxide could be used as a “back gate” electrode to vary the charge density in the graphene layer over a wide range.
The micromechanical cleavage technique led directly to the first observation of the anomalous quantum Hall effect in graphene, which provided direct evidence of the theoretically predicted pi Berry’s phase of massless Dirac fermions in graphene. The anomalous quantum Hall effect in graphene was reported around the same time by Geim and Novoselov and by Philip Kim and Yuanbo Zhang.
Geim has received several awards for his pioneering research on graphene including the 2007 Mott medal for the “discovery of a new class of materials free-standing two-dimensional crystals in particular graphene”, the 2008 EuroPhysics Prize (together with Novoselov) “for discovering and isolating a single free-standing atomic layer of carbon (graphene) and elucidating its remarkable electronic properties”, and the 2009 Krber Prize for “develop[ing] the first two-dimensional crystals made of carbon atoms”. In 2008 and 2009, the Reuters (which also runs a bibliometric service Web of Science) tipped him as one of the front-runners for a Nobel prize in Physics.
The theory of graphene was first explored by Philip R Wallace in 1947 as a starting point for understanding the electronic properties of more complex, 3D graphite. The emergent massless Dirac equation was first pointed out by Gordon W. Semenoff and David P. DeVincenzo and Eugene J. Mele. Semenoff emphasized the occurrence in a magnetic field of an electronic Landau level precisely at the Dirac point. This level is responsible for the anomalous integer quantum Hall effect. Later, single graphene layers were also observed directly by electron microscopy.
More recently, graphene samples prepared on nickel films, and on both the silicon face and carbon face of silicon carbide, have shown the anomalous quantum Hall effect directly in electrical measurements. Graphitic layers on the carbon face of silicon carbide show a clear Dirac spectrum in angle-resolved photoemission experiments, and the anomalous quantum Hall effect is observed in cyclotron resonance and tunneling experiments. Even though graphene on nickel and on silicon carbide have both existed in the laboratory for decades, it was graphene mechanically exfoliated on silicon dioxide that provided the first proof of the Dirac fermion nature of electrons in graphene.
See also
Aromaticity
Exfoliated graphite nano-platelets
Fullerenes
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
Carbon nanotubes
Graphene nanoribbons
Graphene Oxide Paper
Graphite
List of software for nanostructures modeling
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Graphene – inflatable cervical collar – china finger splint
Description
A simple, non-technical definition has been given in a recent review on graphene:
Graphene is a flat monolayer of carbon atoms tightly packed into a two-dimensional (2D) honeycomb lattice, and is a basic building block for graphitic materials of all other dimensionalities. It can be wrapped up into 0D fullerenes, rolled into 1D nanotubes or stacked into 3D graphite.
Previously, graphene was also defined in the chemical literature as follows:
A single carbon layer of the graphitic structure can be considered as the final member of the series naphthalene, anthracene, coronene, etc. and the term graphene should therefore be used to designate the individual carbon layers in graphite intercalation compounds. Use of the term “graphene layer” is also considered for the general terminology of carbons.
The IUPAC compendium of technology states: “previously, descriptions such as graphite layers, carbon layers, or carbon sheets have been used for the term graphene. . . it is not correct to use for a single layer a term which includes the term graphite, which would imply a three-dimensional structure. The term graphene should be used only when the reactions, structural relations or other properties of individual layers are discussed. ” In this regard, graphene has been referred to as an infinite alternant (only six-member carbon ring) polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH). The largest molecule of this type consists of 222 atoms and is 10 benzene rings across. It has proven difficult to synthesize even slightly bigger molecules, and they still remain “a dream of many organic and polymer chemists”. Furthermore, ab initio calculations show that a graphene sheet is thermodynamically unstable with respect to other fullerene structures if its size is less than about 10 nm (raphene is the least stable structure until about 6000 atoms5]). [improper synthesis?]
Also, a definition of “isolated or free standing graphene” has recently been proposed: “graphene is a single atomic plane of graphite, whichnd this is essentials sufficiently isolated from its environment to be considered free-standing. ” This definition is narrower than the definitions given above and refers to cleaved, transferred and suspended graphene monolayers. Other forms of graphene, such as graphene grown on various metals, can also become free-standing if transferred to, e. g. , SiO2 or suspended. A new example of isolated graphene is graphene on SiC after its passivation with hydrogen.
Occurrence and production
Graphene is essentially an isolated atomic plane of graphite. Therefore, from this perspective, graphene has been known since the invention of X-ray crystallography. Graphene planes become even better separated in intercalated graphite compounds. In 2004 physicists from University of Manchester and Institute for Microelectronics Technology, Chernogolovka, Russia, found a way to isolate individual graphene planes by using Scotch tape and they also measured electronic properties of the obtained flakes and showed their fantastic quality. In 2005 the same Manchester group together with researchers from the Columbia University (see the History chapter below) demonstrated that quasiparticles in graphene were massless Dirac fermions. These discoveries led to the explosion of interest in graphene.
Since then, hundreds of researchers have entered the area and, naturally, they carried out the extensive search for relevant earlier papers. The first literature review was given by the Manchester pioneers themselves. They cite several papers in which graphene or ultra-thin graphitic layers were epitaxially grown on various substrates. Also, they point out at a number of pre-2004 reports in which intercalated graphite compounds were studied in a transmission electron microscope. In the latter case, researchers occasionally observed extremely thin graphitic flakes (“few-layer graphene” and possibly even individual layers). The oldest such observation was recently discovered by Rodney Ruoff in a 1962 German-language magazine . It is now well known that tiny fragments of graphene sheets are produced (along with quantities of other debris) whenever graphite is abraded, such as when drawing a line with a pencil. There was little interest in this graphitic residue before 2004/05 and, therefore, the discovery of graphene is often attributed to Andre Geim and colleagues who introduced graphene in its modern incarnation, although pedants may argue that this is as accurate as attributing the discovery of America to Columbus.
Graphene produced by exfoliation is presently one of the most expensive materials on Earth, with a sample that can be placed at the cross section of a human hair costing more than $1,000 as of April 2008 (about $100,000,000/cm2). On the other hand, the price of epitaxial graphene on silicon carbide is dominated by the substrate price, which is approximately $100/cm2 as of 2009. This is about a million times cheaper than exfoliated graphene. Even cheaper graphene has been produced by transfer from nickel by Korean researchers, with wafer sizes up to 30″ reported. [citation needed]
In the literature, specifically that of surface science community, graphene has also been commonly referred to as monolayer graphite. This community has intensely studied epitaxial graphene on various surfaces (over 300 articles prior to 2004). In some cases, these graphene layers are coupled to the surfaces weakly enough (by Van der Waals forces) to retain the two dimensional electronic band structure of isolated graphene, as also happens with exfoliated graphene flakes with regard to silicon dioxide.
For example, experiments on epitaxial graphene monolayers on silicon carbide, have provided the demonstration of the spectrum of massless Dirac particles in graphene, which is the hallmark signature of its electronic structure. It was recently shown that even without being transferred graphene on SiC exhibits the properties of massless Dirac fermions such as the anomalous quantum Hall effect. The weak van der Waals forces that provide the cohesion of multilayer graphene stacks do not always affect the electronic properties of the individual graphene layers in the stack. That is, while the electronic properties of certain multilayered epitaxial graphenes are identical to that of a single graphene layer, in other cases the properties are affected as they are for graphene layers in bulk graphite. This effect is theoretically well understood and is related to the symmetry of the interlayer interactions.
Drawing method
In 2004, the British researchers obtained graphene by mechanical exfoliation of graphite. They used Scotch tape to repeatedly split graphite crystals into increasingly thinner pieces. The tape with attached optically transparent flakes was dissolved in acetone and, after a few further steps, the flakes including monolayers were sedimented on a Si wafer. Individual atomic planes were then hunted in an optical microscope. A year later, the researchers simplified the technique and started using dry deposition, avoiding the stage when graphene floated in a liquid. Relatively large crystallites (first, only a few microns in size but, eventually, larger than 1 mm and visible by a naked eye) were obtained by the technique. It is often referred to as a scotch tape or drawing method. The latter name appeared because the dry deposition resembles drawing with a piece of graphite. The key for the success probably was the use of high throughput visual recognition of graphene on a proper chosen substrate, which provides a small but noticeable optical contrast. For an example of what graphene looks like, see its photograph below.
The isolation of graphene led to the current research boom. Previously, free-standing atomic planes were often “presumed not to exist” because they are thermodynamically unstable on a nm scale and, if unsupported, have a tendency to scroll and buckle. It is currently believed that intrinsic microscopic roughening on the scale of 1 nm could be important for the stability of purely 2D crystals. .
It is interesting to note (see Talk:Graphene) that there were a number of previous attempts to make atomically thin graphitic films by using exfoliation techniques similar to the drawing method. Multilayer samples down to 10 nm in thickness were obtained. These efforts were reviewed in . Furthermore, a couple of very old papers was recently unearthed, in which researchers tried to isolate graphene, starting with intercalated compounds (see History and experimental discovery). These papers reported the observation of very thin graphitic fragments (possibly, monolayers) by transmission electron microscopy. Neither of the earlier observations was sufficient to “spark the graphene gold rush”, until the Science paper did so by reporting not only macroscopic samples of extracted atomic planes but, importantly, their unusual properties such as the bipolar transistor effect, ballistic transport of charges, large quantum oscillations, etc. The discovery of such interesting qualities intrinsic to graphene gave an immediate boost to further research, and several groups quickly repeated the initial result and moved further. These breakthroughs also helped to attract attention to other production techniques such as epitaxial growth of ultra-thin graphitic films. In particular, it has later been found that graphene monolayers grown on SiC and Ir are weakly coupled to these substrates (how weakly remains debated) and the graphene-substrate interaction can be passivated further.
Not only graphene but also free-standing atomic planes of boron nitride, mica, dichalcogenides and complex oxides were obtained by using the drawing method. Unlike graphene, the other 2D materials have so far attracted surprisingly little attention.
Epitaxial growth on silicon carbide
Yet another method is to heat silicon carbide to high temperatures (>1100 C) to reduce it to graphene. This process produces a sample size that is dependent upon the size of the SiC substrate used. The face of the silicon carbide used for graphene creation, the silicon-terminated or carbon-terminated, highly influences the thickness, mobility and carrier density of the graphene.
Many important graphene properties have been identified in graphene produced by this method. For example, the electronic band-structure (so-called Dirac cone structure) has been first visualized in this material. Weak anti-localization is observed in this material and not in exfoliated graphene produced by the pencil trace method. Extremely large, temperature independent mobilities have been observed in SiC epitaxial graphene. They approach those in exfoliated graphene placed on silicon oxide but still much lower than mobilities in suspended graphene produced by the drawing method. Most recently, the anomalous quantum Hall effect has been observed in graphene on Si-face and C-face silicon carbide.
Epitaxial graphene on silicon carbide can be patterned using standard microelectronics methods. The possibility of large integrated electronics on SiC epitaxial graphene was first proposed in 2004 by researchers at the Georgia Institute of Technology, only a couple of months after the discovery of isolated graphene made the drawing method. (A patent for graphene based electronics was applied for in 2003 and issued in 2006). Since then, important advances have been made. In 2008, researchers at MIT Lincoln Lab have produced hundreds of transistors on a single chip and in 2009, very high frequency transistors have been produced at the Hughes Research Laboratories on monolayer graphene on silicon carbide.
Epitaxial growth on metal substrates
This method uses the atomic structure of a metal substrate to seed the growth of the graphene (epitaxial growth). Graphene grown on ruthenium doesn’t typically yield a sample with a uniform thickness of graphene layers, and bonding between the bottom graphene layer and the substrate may affect the properties of the carbon layers. Graphene grown on iridium on the other hand is very weakly bonded, uniform in thickness, and can be made highly ordered. Like on many other substrates, graphene on iridium is slightly rippled. Due to the long-range order of these ripples generation of minigaps in the electronic band-structure (Dirac cone) becomes visible. High-quality sheets of few layer graphene exceeding 1 cm2 (0. 2 sq in) in area have been synthesized via chemical vapor deposition on thin nickel films. These sheets have been successfully transferred to various substrates, demonstrating viability for numerous electronic applications. An improvement of this technique has been found in copper foil where the growth automatically stops after a single graphene layer, and arbitrarily large graphene films can be created.
Hydrazine reduction
Researchers have developed a method of placing graphene oxide paper in a solution of pure hydrazine (a chemical compound of nitrogen and hydrogen), which reduces the graphene oxide paper into single-layer graphene.
Sodium reduction of ethanol
A recent publication has described a process for producing gram-quantities of graphene, by the reduction of ethanol by sodium metal, followed by pyrolysis of the ethoxide product, and washing with water to remove sodium salts.
From nanotubes
Experimental methods for the production of graphene ribbons are reported consisting of cutting open nanotubes. In one such method multi walled carbon nanotubes are cut open in solution by action of potassium permanganate and sulfuric acid. In another method graphene nanoribbons are produced by plasma etching of nanotubes partly embedded in a polymer film
Properties
Atomic structure
The atomic structure of isolated, single-layer graphene was studied by transmission electron microscopy (TEM) on sheets of graphene suspended between bars of a metallic grid. Electron diffraction patterns showed the expected hexagonal lattice of graphene. Suspended graphene also showed “rippling” of the flat sheet, with amplitude of about one nanometer. These ripples may be intrinsic to graphene as a result of the instability of two-dimensional crystals, or may be extrinsic, originating from the ubiquitous dirt seen in all TEM images of graphene. Atomic resolution real-space images of isolated, single-layer graphene on silicon dioxide substrates were obtained by scanning tunneling microscopy. Graphene processed using lithographic techniques is covered by photoresist residue, which must be cleaned to obtain atomic-resolution images. Such residue may be the “adsorbates” observed in TEM images, and may explain the rippling of suspended graphene. Rippling of graphene on the silicon dioxide surface was determined by conformation of graphene to the underlying silicon dioxide, and not an intrinsic effect.
Graphene sheets in solid form (density > 1 g/cm3) usually show evidence in diffraction for graphite’s 0. 34 nm (002) layering. This is true even of some single-walled carbon nanostructures. However, unlayered graphene with only (hk0) rings has been found in the core of presolar graphite onions. Transmission electron microscope studies show faceting at defects in flat graphene sheets, and suggest a possible role in this unlayered-graphene for two-dimensional dendritic crystallization from a melt.
Electronic properties
GNR band structure for zig-zag type. Tightbinding calculations show that zigzag type is always metallic.
GNR band structure for arm-chair type. Tightbinding calculations show that armchair type can be semiconducting or metallic depending on width (chirality).
Graphene is quite different from most conventional three-dimensional materials. Intrinsic graphene is a semi-metal or zero-gap semiconductor. Understanding the electronic structure of graphene is the starting point for finding the band structure of graphite. It was realized early on that the E-k relation is linear for low energies near the six corners of the two-dimensional hexagonal Brillouin zone, leading to zero effective mass for electrons and holes. Due to this linear (or onical”) dispersion relation at low energies, electrons and holes near these six points, two of which are inequivalent, behave like relativistic particles described by the Dirac equation for spin 1/2 particles. Hence, the electrons and holes are called Dirac fermions, and the six corners of the Brillouin zone are called the Dirac points. The equation describing the E-k relation is ; where the Fermi velocity vF ~ 106 m/s.
Electronic transport
Experimental results from transport measurements show that graphene has a remarkably high electron mobility at room temperature, with reported values in excess of 15,000 cm2V1s1. Additionally, the symmetry of the experimentally measured conductance indicates that the mobilities for holes and electrons should be nearly the same. The mobility is nearly independent of temperature between 10 K and 100 K, which implies that the dominant scattering mechanism is defect scattering. Scattering by the acoustic phonons of graphene places intrinsic limits on the room temperature mobility to 200,000 cm2V1s1 at a carrier density of 1012 cm2. The corresponding resistivity of the graphene sheet would be 106 cm, less than the resistivity of silver, the lowest resistivity substance known at room temperature. However, for graphene on silicon dioxide substrates, scattering of electrons by optical phonons of the substrate is a larger effect at room temperature than scattering by graphene own phonons, and limits the mobility to 40,000 cm2 V1s1.
Despite the zero carrier density near the Dirac points, graphene exhibits a minimum conductivity on the order of 4e2/h. The origin of this minimum conductivity is still unclear. However, rippling of the graphene sheet or ionized impurities in the SiO2 substrate may lead to local puddles of carriers that allow conduction. Several theories suggest that the minimum conductivity should be 4e2/h; however, most measurements are of order 4e2/h or greater and depend on impurity concentration.
Recent experiments have probed the influence of chemical dopants on the carrier mobility in graphene. Schedin et al. doped graphene with various gaseous species (some acceptors, some donors), and found the initial undoped state of a graphene structure can be recovered by gently heating the graphene in vacuum. They reported that even for chemical dopant concentrations in excess of 1012 cm2 there is no observable change in the carrier mobility. Chen, et al. doped graphene with potassium in ultra high vacuum at low temperature. They found that potassium ions act as expected for charged impurities in graphene, and can reduce the mobility 20-fold. The mobility reduction is reversible on heating the graphene to remove the potassium.
Due to its two-dimensional property, charge fractionalization (where the apparent charge of individual psuedoparticles in low-dimensional systems is less than a single quantum) is thought to occur in graphene. It may therefore be a suitable material for the construction of quantum computers using anyonic circuits.
Optical properties
Photograph of graphene in transmitted light. This one atom thick crystal can be seen with the naked eye because it absorbs approximately 2. 3% of white light, which is times fine-structure constant.
Graphene’s unique electronic properties produce an unexpectedly high opacity for an atomic monolayer, with a startlingly simple value: it absorbs 2. 3% of white light, where is the fine-structure constant. This is “a consequence of the unusual low-energy electronic structure of monolayer graphene that features electron and hole conical bands meeting each other at the Dirac point . . . [which] is qualitatively different from more common quadratic massive bands”. Based on the Slonczewski-Weiss-McClure (SWMcC) band model of graphite, the interatomic distance, hopping value and frequency cancel when the optical conductance is calculated using the Fresnel equations in the thin-film limit.
This has been confirmed experimentally, but the measurement is not precise enough to improve on other techniques for determining the fine-structure constant.
Recently it has been demonstrated that the bandgap of graphene can be tuned from 0 to 0. 25 eV (about 5 micron wavelength) by applying voltage to a dual-gate bilayer graphene field-effect transistor (FET) at room temperature. . The optical response of graphene nanoribbons has also been shown to be tunable into the terahertz regime by an applied magnetic field
Saturable absorption
It is further confirmed that such unique absorption could become saturated when the input optical intensity is above a threshold value. This nonlinear optical behavior is termed saturable absorption and the threshold value is called the saturation fluency. Graphene can be saturated readily under strong excitation over the visible to near-infrared region, due to the universal optical absorption and zero band gap. This has relevance for the mode locking of fiber lasers, where wideband tunability may be obtained using graphene as the saturable absorber. Due to this special property, graphene has wide application in ultrafast photonics.
Spin transport
Graphene is thought to be an ideal material for spintronics due to small spin-orbit interaction and near absence of nuclear magnetic moments in carbon. Electrical spin-current injection and detection in graphene was recently demonstrated up to room temperature. Spin coherence length above 1 micron at room temperature was observed, and control of the spin current polarity with an electrical gate was observed at low temperature.
Anomalous quantum Hall effect
The quantum Hall effect is relevant for accurate measuring standards of electrical quantities, and in 1985 Klaus von Klitzing received the Nobel prize for its discovery. The effect concerns the dependence of a transverse conductivity on a magnetic field, which is perpendicular to a current-carrying stripe. Usually the phenomenon, the quantization of the so-called Hall conductivity xy at integer multiples of the basic quantity e2/h (where e is the elementary electric charge and h is Planck’s constant) can be observed only in very clean Si or GaAs solids, and at very low temperatures around 3 K, and at very high magnetic fields.
Graphene in contrast, besides its high mobility and minimum conductivity, and because of certain pseudo-relativistic peculiarities to be mentioned below, shows particularly interesting behavior just in the presence of a magnetic field and just with respect to the conductivity-quantization: it displays an anomalous quantum Hall effect with the sequence of steps shifted by 1/2 with respect to the standard sequence, and with an additional factor of 4. Thus, in graphene the Hall conductivity is , where n is the above-mentioned integer “Landau level” index, and the double valley and double spin degeneracies give the factor of 4. Moreover, in graphene these remarkable anomalies can even be measured at room temperature, i. e. at roughly 20 C. This anomalous behavior is a direct result of the emergent massless Dirac electrons in graphene. In a magnetic field, their spectrum has a Landau level with energy precisely at the Dirac point. This level is a consequence of the Atiyah-Singer index theorem. and is half-filled in neutral graphene, leading to the “+1/2″ in the Hall conductivity. Bilayer graphene also shows the quantum Hall effect, but with the standard sequence, i. e. with i. e. with only one of the two anomalies. Interestingly, concerning the second anomaly, the first plateau at N = 0 is absent, indicating that bilayer graphene stays metallic at the neutrality point.
Unlike normal metals, the longitudinal resistance of graphene shows maxima rather than minima for integral values of the Landau filling factor in measurements of the Shubnikov-de Haas oscillations, which show a phase shift of , known as Berry phase. The Berry phase arises due to the zero effective carrier mass near the Dirac points. Study of the temperature dependence of the Shubnikov-de Haas oscillations in graphene reveals that the carriers have a non-zero cyclotron mass, despite their zero effective mass from the E-k relation.
Nanostripes: Spin-polarized edge currents
Nanostripes of graphene (in the “zig-zag” orientation), at low temperatures, show spin-polarized metallic edge currents, which also suggests applications in the new field of spintronics. (In the “armchair” orientation, the edges behave like semiconductors. )
Graphene oxide
By oxidizing and chemically processing graphene, and then floating them in water, the graphene flakes form a single sheet and bond very powerfully. These sheets, called Graphene oxide paper have a measured Tensile Modulus of 32 GPa.
Chemical modification
Soluble fragments of graphene can be prepared in the laboratory through chemical modification of graphite. First, microcrystalline graphite is treated with a strongly acidic mixture of sulfuric acid and nitric acid. A series of steps involving oxidation and exfoliation result in small graphene plates with carboxyl groups at their edges. These are converted to acid chloride groups by treatment with thionyl chloride; next, they are converted to the corresponding graphene amide via treatment with octadecylamine. The resulting material (circular graphene layers of 5. 3 angstrom thickness) is soluble in tetrahydrofuran, tetrachloromethane, and dichloroethane.
Full hydrogenation from both sides of graphene sheet results in graphane, but partial hydrogenation leads to hydrogenated graphene
Thermal properties
The near-room temperature thermal conductivity of graphene was recently measured to be between (4. 840. 44) 103 to (5. 300. 48) 103 Wm1K1. These measurements, made by a non-contact optical technique, are in excess of those measured for carbon nanotubes or diamond. It can be shown by using the Wiedemann-Franz law, that the thermal conduction is phonon-dominated. However, for a gated graphene strip, an applied gate bias causing a Fermi energy shift much larger than kBT can cause the electronic contribution to increase and dominate over the phonon contribution at low temperatures. The ballistic thermal conductance of graphene is isotropic.
Potential for this high conductivity can be seen by considering graphite, a 3D version of graphene that has basal plane thermal conductivity of over a 1000 W/mK (comparable to diamond). In graphite, the c-axis (out of plane) thermal conductivity is over a factor of ~100 smaller due to the weak binding forces between basal planes as well as the larger lattice spacing. In addition, the ballistic thermal conductance of a graphene is shown to give the lower limit of the ballistic thermal conductances, per unit circumference, length of carbon nanotubes.
Despite its 2-D nature, graphene has 3 acoustic phonon modes. The two in-plane modes (LA, TA) have a linear dispersion relation, whereas the out of plane mode (ZA) has a quadratic dispersion relation. Due to this, the T2 dependent thermal conductivity contribution of the linear modes is dominated at low temperatures by the T1. 5 contribution of the out of plane mode. Some graphene phonon bands display negative Grneisen parameters. At low temperatures (where most optical modes with positive Grneisen parameters are still not excited) the contribution from the negative Grneisen parameters will be dominant and thermal expansion coefficient (which is directly proportional to Grneisen parameters) negative. The lowest negative Grneisen parameters correspond to the lowest transversal acoustic ZA modes. Phonon frequencies for such modes increase with the in-plane lattice parameter since atoms in the layer upon stretching will be less free to move in the z direction. This is similar to the behavior of a string which is being stretched will have vibrations of smaller amplitude and higher frequency. This phenomenon, named “membrane effect”, was predicted by Lifshitz in 1952.
Mechanical properties
As of 2009, graphene appears the strongest material ever tested. Measurements have shown that graphene has a breaking strength 200 times greater than steel. However, the process of separating it from graphite, where it occurs naturally, will require some technological development before it is economical enough to be used in industrial processes, though this may be changing soon.
Utilizing an atomic force microscope (AFM), the spring constant of suspended graphene sheets have been measured. Graphene sheets, held together by van der Waals forces, were suspended over silicon dioxide cavities where an AFM tip was probed to test its mechanical properties. Its spring constant was in the range 1-5 N/m and the Young’s modulus was 0. 5 TPa, which differs from that of the bulk graphite. These high values make graphene very strong and rigid. These intrinsic properties could lead to utilizing graphene for NEMS applications such as pressure sensors, and resonators.
As is true of all materials, regions of graphene are subject to thermal and quantum fluctuations in relative displacement. Although the amplitude of these fluctuations is bounded in 3D structures (even in the limit of infinite size), the Mermin-Wagner theorem shows that the amplitude of long-wavelength fluctuations will grow logarithmically with the scale of a 2D structure, and would therefore be unbounded in structures of infinite size. Local deformation and elastic strain are negligibly affected by this long-range divergence in relative displacement. It is believed that a sufficiently large 2D structure, in the absence of applied lateral tension, will bend and crumple to form a fluctuating 3D structure. Researchers have observed ripples in suspended layers of graphene, and it has been proposed that the ripples are caused by thermal fluctuations in the material. As a consequence of these dynamical deformations, it is debatable whether graphene is truly a 2D structure.
Potential applications
Single molecule gas detection
Graphene makes an excellent sensor due to its 2D structure. The fact that its entire volume is exposed to its surrounding makes it very efficient to detect adsorbed molecules. Molecule detection is indirect: as a gas molecule adsorbs to the surface of graphene, the location of adsorption experiences a local change in electrical resistance. While this effect occurs in other materials, graphene is superior due to its high electrical conductivity (even when few carriers are present) and low noise which makes this change in resistance detectable.
Graphene nanoribbons
Graphene nanoribbons (GNRs) are essentially single layers of graphene that are cut in a particular pattern to give it certain electrical properties. Depending on how the un-bonded edges are configured, they can either be in a zigzag or armchair configuration. Calculations based on tight binding predict that zigzag GNRs are always metallic while armchairs can be either metallic or semiconducting, depending on their width. However, recent density functional theory calculations show that armchair nanoribbons are semiconducting with an energy gap scaling with the inverse of the GNR width. Indeed, experimental results show that the energy gaps do increase with decreasing GNR width. However, as of February 2008, no experimental results have measured the energy gap of a GNR and identified the exact edge structure. Zigzag nanoribbons are also semiconducting and present spin polarized edges. Their 2D structure, high electrical and thermal conductivity, and low noise also make GNRs a possible alternative to copper for integrated circuit interconnects. Some research is also being done to create quantum dots by changing the width of GNRs at select points along the ribbon, creating quantum confinement.
Graphene transistors
Due to its high electronic quality, graphene has also attracted the interest of technologists who see them as a way of constructing ballistic transistors. Graphene exhibits a pronounced response to perpendicular external electric fields allowing one to built FETs (field-effect transistors). In their 2004 paper, the Manchester group demonstrated FETs with a “rather modest” on-off ratio of ~30 at room temperature. In 2006, Georgia Tech researchers announced that they had successfully built an all-graphene planar FET with side gates. Their devices showed changes of 2% at cryogenic temperatures. The first top-gated FET (on-off ratio of
Facing the fact that current graphene transistors show a very poor on-off ratio, researchers are trying to find ways for improvement. In 2008 researchers of AMICA and University of Manchester demonstrated a new switching effect in graphene field-effect devices. This switching effect is based on a reversible chemical modification of the graphene layer and gives an on-off ratio of greater than six orders of magnitude. These reversible switches could potentially be applied to nonvolatile memories.
In 2009 researchers at the Politecnico di Milano demonstrated four different types of logic gates, each comprised of a single graphene transistor. In the same year, the Massachusetts Institute of Technology researchers built an experimental graphene chip known as a frequency multiplier. It is capable of taking an incoming electrical signal of a certain frequency and producing an output signal that is a multiple of that frequency. Although these graphene chips open up a range of new applications their practical use is limited by a very small voltage gain (typically, the amplitude of the output signal is about 40 times less than that of the input signal). Moreover, none of these circuits was demonstrated to operate at frequencies higher than 25 kHz.
In February 2010, researchers at IBM reported that they have been able to create graphene transistors with an on and off rate of 100 gigahertz, far exceeding the rates of previous attempts, and exceeding the speed of silicon. The graphene transistors made at IBM were made using extant, silicon-manufacturing equipment, meaning that for the first time graphene transistors are a conceivable–though still fanciful–replacement for silicon
Integrated circuits
Graphene has the ideal properties to be an excellent component of integrated circuits. Graphene has a high carrier mobility, as well as low noise allowing it to be utilized as the channel in a FET. The issue is that single sheets of graphene are hard to produce, and even harder to make on top of an appropriate substrate. Researchers are looking into methods of transferring single graphene sheets from their source of origin (mechanical exfoliation on SiO2 / Si or thermal graphitization of a SiC surface) onto a target substrate of interest. In 2008, the smallest transistor so far, one atom thick, 10 atoms wide was made of graphene. IBM announced in December 2008 that they have fabricated and characterized graphene transistors operating at GHz frequencies. In May 2009 a team from Stanford University, University of Florida and Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory announced that they have created an n-type transistor, which means that both and n and p-type transistors have now been created with graphene. At the same time, the researchers at the Politecnico di Milano demonstrated the first functional graphene integrated circuit a complementary inverter consisting of one p- and one n-type graphene transistor. However, this inverter also suffered from a very low voltage gain. According to a January 2010 report from the UK’s National Physical Laboratory, a joint group of European research groups (including Politecnico di Milano (Italy), Chalmers University of Technology (Sweden), Linkping University (Sweden) and Lancaster University (UK), as well as the the NPL) epitaxially grew layers on silicon carbide, in a quantity and with quality suitable for mass-production of integrated circuits. At high temperatures, the Quantum Hall Effect was accurately measured in these samples by the Quantum Detection Group, a division of the NPL.
Transparent conducting electrodes
Graphene’s high electrical conductivity and high optical transparency make it a candidate for transparent conducting electrodes, required for such applications as touchscreens, liquid crystal displays, organic photovoltaic cells, and Organic light-emitting diodes. In particular, graphene’s mechanical strength and flexibility are advantageous compared to indium tin oxide, which is brittle, and graphene films may be deposited from solution over large areas.
Large-area, continuous, transparent, and highly conducting few-layered graphene ms were produced by chemical vapor deposition and used as anode for application in photovoltaic devices. A greatly improved power conversion efficiency (PCE) up to 1. 71% was demonstrated, which is 55. 2% of the PCE of a control device based on indium-tin-oxide.
Reference material for characterizing electroconductive and transparent materials
One layer of graphene absorbs 2. 3 % of white light. This property was used to define the Conductivity of Transparency that combines the sheet resistance and the transparency. This parameter was used to compare different materials without the use of two independent parameters.
Ultracapacitors
Due to the incredibly high surface area to mass ratio of graphene, one potential application is in the conductive plates of ultracapacitors. It is believed that graphene could be used to produce ultracapacitors with a greater energy storage density than is currently available.
Graphene biodevices
Graphene’s modifiable chemistry, large surface area, atomic-thickness and molecularly-gatable structure make antibody-functionalized-graphene-sheets excellent candidate for mammalian and microbial detection and diagnosis.
Energy of the electrons with wavenumber k in graphene, calculated in the Tight Binding-approximation. The unoccupied rsp. occupied states, colored in blue-red rsp. yellow-green, touch each other without energy gap exactly at the above-mentioned six k-vectors.
Pseudo-relativistic theory
The electrical properties of graphene can be described by a conventional tight-binding model; in this model the energy of the electrons with wavenumber k is
,
with the nearest-neighbor hopping energy 0 2. 8 eV and the lattice constant a 2. 46 . Conduction and valence band, respectively, correspond to the different signs in the above dispersion relation; they touch each other in six points, the “K-values”. However, only two of these six points are independent, whereas the rest is equivalent by symmetry. In the vicinity of the K-points the energy depends linearly on the wavenumber, similar to a relativistic particle. Since an elementary cell of the lattice has a basis of two atoms, the wave function even has an effective 2-spinor structure. As a consequence, at low energies, even neglecting the true spin, the electrons can be described by an equation which is formally equivalent to the massless Dirac equation. Moreover, in the present case this pseudo-relativistic description is restricted to the chiral limit, i. e. , to vanishing rest mass M0, which leads to interesting additional features:
Here vF ~ 106 is the Fermi velocity in graphene which replaces the velocity of light in the Dirac theory; is the vector of the Pauli matrices, is the two-component wave function of the electrons, and E is their energy.
History and experimental discovery
The term graphene first appeared in 1987 in order to describe single sheets of graphite as one of the constituents of graphite intercalation compounds (GICs); conceptually a GIC is a crystalline salt of the intercalant and graphene. The term was also used in early descriptions of carbon nanotubes, as well as for epitaxial graphene, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons.
Larger graphene molecules or sheets (so that they can be considered as true isolated 2D crystals) cannot be grown even in principle. An article in Physics Today reads:
“Fundamental forces place seemingly insurmountable barriers in the way of creating [2D crystals] . . . Nascent 2D crystallites try to minimize their surface energy and inevitably morph into one of the rich variety of stable 3D structures that occur in soot. But there is a way around the problem. Interactions with 3D structures stabilize 2D crystals during growth. So one can make 2D crystals sandwiched between or placed on top of the atomic planes of a bulk crystal. In that respect, graphene already exists within graphite . . . One can then hope to fool Nature and extract single-atom-thick crystallites at a low enough temperature that they remain in the quenched state prescribed by the original higher-temperature 3D growth. ”
Single layers of graphite were previously (starting from the 1970s) grown epitaxially on top of other materials. This “epitaxial graphene” consists of a single-atom-thick hexagonal lattice of sp2-bonded carbon atoms, as in free-standing graphene. However, there is significant charge transfer from the substrate to the epitaxial graphene, and, in some cases, hybridization between the d orbitals of the substrate atoms and orbitals of graphene, which significantly alters the electronic structure of the epitaxial graphene.
Single layers of graphite were also observed by transmission electron microscopy within bulk materials (see section Occurrence), in particular inside soot obtained by chemical exfoliation. There have also been a number of efforts to make very thin films of graphite by mechanical exfoliation (starting from 1990 and continuing until after 2004) but nothing thinner than 50 to 100 layers was produced during these years.
A key advance in the science of graphene came when Andre Geim and Kostya Novoselov at Manchester University managed to extract single-atom-thick crystallites (graphene) from bulk graphite in 2004. The Manchester researchers pulled out graphene layers from graphite and transferred them onto thin silicon dioxide on a silicon wafer in a process sometimes called micromechanical cleavage or, simply, the Scotch tape technique. The silicon dioxide electrically isolated the graphene, and was weakly interacting with the graphene, providing nearly charge-neutral graphene layers. The silicon beneath the silicon dioxide could be used as a “back gate” electrode to vary the charge density in the graphene layer over a wide range.
The micromechanical cleavage technique led directly to the first observation of the anomalous quantum Hall effect in graphene, which provided direct evidence of the theoretically predicted pi Berry’s phase of massless Dirac fermions in graphene. The anomalous quantum Hall effect in graphene was reported around the same time by Geim and Novoselov and by Philip Kim and Yuanbo Zhang.
Geim has received several awards for his pioneering research on graphene including the 2007 Mott medal for the “discovery of a new class of materials free-standing two-dimensional crystals in particular graphene”, the 2008 EuroPhysics Prize (together with Novoselov) “for discovering and isolating a single free-standing atomic layer of carbon (graphene) and elucidating its remarkable electronic properties”, and the 2009 Krber Prize for “develop[ing] the first two-dimensional crystals made of carbon atoms”. In 2008 and 2009, the Reuters (which also runs a bibliometric service Web of Science) tipped him as one of the front-runners for a Nobel prize in Physics.
The theory of graphene was first explored by Philip R Wallace in 1947 as a starting point for understanding the electronic properties of more complex, 3D graphite. The emergent massless Dirac equation was first pointed out by Gordon W. Semenoff and David P. DeVincenzo and Eugene J. Mele. Semenoff emphasized the occurrence in a magnetic field of an electronic Landau level precisely at the Dirac point. This level is responsible for the anomalous integer quantum Hall effect. Later, single graphene layers were also observed directly by electron microscopy.
More recently, graphene samples prepared on nickel films, and on both the silicon face and carbon face of silicon carbide, have shown the anomalous quantum Hall effect directly in electrical measurements. Graphitic layers on the carbon face of silicon carbide show a clear Dirac spectrum in angle-resolved photoemission experiments, and the anomalous quantum Hall effect is observed in cyclotron resonance and tunneling experiments. Even though graphene on nickel and on silicon carbide have both existed in the laboratory for decades, it was graphene mechanically exfoliated on silicon dioxide that provided the first proof of the Dirac fermion nature of electrons in graphene.
See also
Aromaticity
Exfoliated graphite nano-platelets
Fullerenes
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
Carbon nanotubes
Graphene nanoribbons
Graphene Oxide Paper
Graphite
List of software for nanostructures modeling
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^ Akturk, A. and Goldsman, N. (2008). “Electron transport and full-band electron-phonon interactions in graphene”. Journal of Applied Physics 103: 053702. doi:10. 1063/1. 2890147.
^ Physicists Show Electrons Can Travel More Than 100 Times Faster in Graphene
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^ Nair, R. R. et al. (2008). “Fine Structure Constant Defines Visual Transparency of Graphene”. Science 320 (5881): 1308. doi:10. 1126/science. 1156965. PMID 18388259. http://onnes. ph. man. ac. uk/nano/Publications/Science_2008fsc. pdf.
^ “Graphene Gazing Gives Glimpse Of Foundations Of Universe”. ScienceDaily. 2008-04-04. http://www. sciencedaily. com/releases/2008/04/080403140918. htm. Retrieved 2008-04-06.
^ Zhang, Y. et al. (11 June 2009). “Direct observation of a widely tunable bandgap in bilayer graphene”. Nature 459 (7248): 820823. doi:10. 1038/nature08105. PMID 19516337.
^ Junfeng Liu, A. R. Wright, Chao Zhang, and Zhongshui Ma (29 July 2008). “Strong terahertz conductance of graphene nanoribbons under a magnetic field”. Appl Phys Lett 93: 041106041110. doi:10. 1063/1. 2964093.
^ Qiaoliang Bao, Han Zhang, Yu Wang, Zhenhua Ni, Yongli Yan, Ze Xiang Shen, Kian Ping Loh,and Ding Yuan Tang, Advanced Functional Materials,”Atomic layer graphene as saturable absorber for ultrafast pulsed lasers “http://www3. ntu. edu. sg/home2006/zhan0174/AFM. pdf,Zhang, H. et al. . “Large energy mode locking of an erbium-doped fiber laser with atomic layer graphene” (free download pdf). Optics Express 17: P17630. http://www3. ntu. edu. sg/home2006/zhan0174/OE_graphene. pdf.
^ Zhang, H. et al. . “Large energy soliton erbium-doped er laser with a graphene-polymer composite mode locker”. Applied Physics Letters 95: P141103. http://www3. ntu. edu. sg/home2006/zhan0174/apl. pdf. http://www. natureasia. com/asia-materials/highlight. php?id=594, http://www. nanowerk. com/spotlight/spotid=14231. php
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^ Balandin, Alexander A. et al. ; Ghosh, Suchismita; Bao, Wenzhong; Calizo, Irene; Teweldebrhan, Desalegne; Miao, Feng; Lau, Chun Ning (2008-02-20). “Superior Thermal Conductivity of Single-Layer Graphene”. Nano Letters ASAP 8 (3): 902907. doi:10. 1021/nl0731872. PMID 18284217.
^ Saito, K. , Nakamura, J. , and Natori, A. (2007). “Ballistic thermal conductance of a graphene sheet”. Physical Review B 76: 115409. doi:10. 1103/PhysRevB. 76. 115409.
^ Delhaes, P. (2001). Graphite and Precursors. CRC Press. ISBN 9056992287. http://books. google. com/books?id=7p2pgNOWPbEC.
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^ Sanderson, Bill (2008-08-25). “Toughest Stuff Known to Man : Discovery Opens Door to Space Elevator”. nypost. com. http://www. nypost. com/seven/08252008/news/regionalnews/toughest_stuff__known_to_man_125993. htm. Retrieved 2008-10-09.
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^ Frank, I. W. , Tanenbaum, D. M. , Van Der Zande, A. M. , and McEuen, P. L. (2007). “Mechanical properties of suspended graphene sheets” (free download pdf). J. Vac. Sci. Technol. B 25: 25582561. doi:10. 1116/1. 2789446. h. . .
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Nova Scotia Student Career Skills Development Program
Students should know that there are a number of different programs which are aimed at developing their career skills. Nova Scotia Economic and Rural Development has created a specific Nova Scotia Student Career Skills Development Program which has the purpose to create career-related summer jobs and to help students take up those depending on their specialization and desire. The main purpose of the program is that students should take up the professions they study for. There are some requirements and specific information students should know before applying for such job.
Information about Nova Scotia Student Career Skills Development Program
1. The program is directed at three categories of students: (1) those who have been attending post-secondary establishments and will return there in the fall, (2) those who have been attending a post-secondary establishment and will transfer to another one in the fall, and (3) grade 12 graduates who have already been accepted to a post secondary establishment and will attend it in the fall.
2. Students are going to be full-employed. They are not allowed to shift from the position. At the same time, an employer can dismiss a student for valid reasons.
3. The employer is obliged to pay a salary for a student plus 4% vacation pay. The salary is calculated according to the amount of hours he/she has been working.
4. Students are responsible for possessing a social insurance number.
5. Workers’ Compensation coverage should be provided in case if an employer hires three or more workers (students in this case).
6. Students should have a Personal Tax Credits Return form.
7. Approval Letter is the main document students and an employer should follow.
The information stated above is not full. We just provided students with general facts about Nova Scotia Student Career Skills Development Program. For more detailed information they should contact Student Career Skills Development Program web site.
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How to Get your Business Admin PhD Degree Online
If you want to be a step ahead of the other job seekers, it is important that you get a degree. But a bachelor’s degree is no longer enough since the employed world is very competitive nowadays. The higher your degree, the bigger chances of landing that dream job with high paying salaries. Therefore, if you can, try to get a Business Admin PhD in the university that you like.
But there are times that going to school for the nth time does not sound so appealing anymore even for those who are determined to get a Business Admin PhD degree. If you have other reasons such as work or business which may conflict the school’s schedule, why not get an online degree instead?
Check your local university if they offer online courses and PhDs as well. In this way, you will get to go on with your life prior to getting your PhD while getting a degree at the same time. You are not required to attend school on a daily basis but rather the course syllabus and other materials will be delivered to you through snail mail or e-mail. There are times that your presence is needed in school during special occasions such as big exams and the like. But nonetheless, you will be self-studying and the materials are accessible online.
Another option is to get a Business Admin PhD degree through legit online universities. The advantage of this is that you have wider options when it comes to choosing the school where you want to get your PhD. Documents that would prove them that you already finished your Bachelor’s and Masteral’s degree should be scanned before they can let you access their materials online.
Although the tuition fee for getting your online degree is higher compared to the price when you personally go to school, it is far more convenient and allows you to have a flexible time studying as well.
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EB-5 Visa ? US Visa, EB-5 Regional Center Visa Program
With an increased trend of brain drain, immigrants to foreign countries are increasing everyday which has resulted in hike in applicants for the passports and visas. Many immigration law firms are emerging which help to obtain visa legally. Roth Immigration Law Firm, managed by Attorney, John F. Roth is one such firm which can help you to apply for and obtain on legal terms of the U. S government. John . F. Roth, a graduate of the University of Pennsylvania Law School and the Wharton School of Finance is uniquely qualified to help you obtain an through .
EB-5 Regional Center Visa Program:
The , started in 1991 to encourage foreign investments in U. S, required that an investor contributes $1,000,000 to a U. S. business that would create 10 U. S. jobs. Due to difficulty faced by investors in maintaining the business far from home countries this program was not successful and was again reformed in 1993 as . In this the investor does not directly invest in his own business, but in a fund which is previously approved by the U. S. government, that manages businesses creating jobs in rural or unemployment areas. This program was again reformed in 2008 to overcome its drawbacks related to the maintenance of regional centers.
The newly reformed now provides an exciting new possibility for investors interested in obtaining permanent residence in U. S for themselves and their immediate families. What you need to do is to invest $500,000 in a U. S. government approved business fund that will create jobs in higher-than-average unemployment areas or rural areas in the U. S. By this we can help you to obtain a within two years for yourself, your spouse and children of age below 21 without ever having to buy or manage a business in the U. S and with freedom that you may live anywhere in the U. S. you choose. We ensure you that your visa will approve but if the same does not happen then your money will undoubtedly be returned to you.
Through our green card can be achieved by following certain legal steps to get initial conditional permanent residence status whose conditions can then be removed by taking certain legal steps. Before all this it is required to check if applicant is qualified to apply for who can then choose from the various regional centers with help of our qualified and experienced attorney, John. F. Roth who will counsel you regarding the features of regional center business funds.
There are few areas like prior criminal conviction, communicable illness, member of communist party or any terrorist group based on which applicants request for EB-5 visa can be denied. Some of the legal issues to be dealt with in the case of EB-5 visa are to provide documents to prove that money invested is from legal sources and that money was utilized in establishing enterprise which directly or indirectly lead to the creation of 10 U. S jobs.
Though is the best, it is not the best option for every immigrant investor. Depending on situation Roth Immigration Law Firm provides other visa options as follows:EB-5 Standard program:
In our investors individually select regional center and have to invest $1,000,000 or $ 500,000 to typically restructure a U. S business to create 10 U. S jobs. This program is best suited to investors expecting high returns on their invested business.
E-2 Investor Visa:
It is applicable only to the Nationals of Treaty Countries. This is which requires proving your departure from U. S at the end of visa term. The allows the investor to live in the U. S. while developing a business in which he or she has invested.
L-1A Intracompany Transferee:
The allows an executive of an overseas firm to be transferred to a US branch office for up to seven years with a condition that the employee must have worked abroad for the company for at least one year out of the prior three years in order to qualify for the visa.
So if you are seeking for any kind of or or green card through you can contact
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How to maximise your chances of success with distance learning
Advantages over traditional learning
Research conducted last December by the Home Learning College, a leading distance education provider in the UK, found that one of the top benefits of distance learning is that it gives individuals the opportunity to study while working.
“Without doubt, one of the main advantages of distance learning is the significantly enhanced level of flexibility,” says Dr. Dave Snow, the academic director of Home Learning College. “Rather than being tied to academic term dates–which might mean waiting almost a whole year should an enrolment deadline be missed–distance learning can start and finish at any time. ”
“Also, distance learning allows students to structure their own learning experience,” he continues. “Some people study better in the morning, others find they are more focused at night, so they can develop a timetable that best matches their individual preferences. ”
Student Laura Wellers agrees. “The fact that I could get my qualification by distance learning was ideal because I could study whenever I had a spare moment. I could read a chapter several times and fully digest the content before attempting the assignment questions. As a result, I found it easy to combine studying with working full time. And I still managed to have a social life!”
If a lot of your time is focused on a job search, distance learning offers further advantages. For one thing, there is no need to take time off work to attend classes–you already need all the time you have for interviews. Studies on distance education also show that, as your knowledge will increase, so will your self-confidence, and this is essential for successful job searching.
Importantly, distance education methods are not less effective than traditional ones, says Snow. “A recent US-based study showed that 62% of chief academic officers rated learning outcomes for online instruction as the same or superior to those for face-to-face instruction. ”
Who is distance learning for?
Snow says: “Distance learning is ideal for a number of people. We all lead such busy lives that it can be hard to dedicate time every week to attending classes. Distance learning is the perfect solution for anyone who has existing work or social commitments, because it’s flexible and can be fitted around everyday life. ”
“Also, some people just aren’t comfortable with the idea of going back into a classroom. In our research, 16% cited not having to embarrass themselves in front of other students if they get something wrong as a benefit of distance learning. ”
And, it’s never too late to join in: a 2005 UK survey found that the age of students on distance learning courses ranges from 21 to 72 years.
Will help you stand out!
Remember, the job market is a competitive one. If you want to stand out, distance learning can help you improve your knowledge, and turn your hopes of a more rewarding job into success.
“Just one month into my course, I was made redundant, and decided to see this as a positive opportunity to re-think my career,” says Laura Wellers. “I applied for and secured a dual position between two very busy HR departments within the head office for a large retailer. I strongly believe that undertaking this course showed my enthusiasm and drive for HR and was instrumental in helping me to get this job. ”
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To Become A Master Marketer
Master Marketer refers to being adept at internet marketing. Online entrepreneurship is now more prevalent than in the previous years. Many people are learning internet marketing strategy as a means to earn money because of the low start-up capital. To be operational, you may only need an internet connection, a computer and software. People can either have short courses on internet marketing to become a master marketer. Entrepreneurs who are the top earners in the industry have often come up with programs to help people achieve financial success. If you plan on becoming a master marketer, the master marketers would advise you to think positive about internet marketing. If you give in to doubts, you will likely be unable to see the beauty of an internet marketing business. You will also need to know the basics of internet marketing, which includes marketing tactics. Promotional marketing strategy can be done even when you do not have a website. Affiliate marketing can do that for you. The marketing training programs available on the internet are very important on shedding light to internet marketing. The successful businessmen have in-depth understanding of the difference between conventional marketing approaches and internet marketing. One of the powerful tools that you can use to channel your internet marketing strategies is the search engines. Only when you have studied online marketing education can you fully realize how relevant the search engines are for your success. Only very few business owners have achieved such lucrative realization. Having master marketer skills will enable you to distinguish the difference between advertising techniques used in offline and online advertising. You cannot even treat the internet the same way after you had absorbed your lessons in internet marketing.
There are several ways to have internet marketing information. You can enroll in an online university, buy marketing software, or sign up for newsletters. Online universities offer a variety of marketing degrees. There are also short courses that specify a certain field in online marketing. When you buy software programs, the package comes with e-books and software CD which you will install on your computer. These programs are mostly a product of successful entrepreneurs who want to share their knowledge in master marketer. Newsletters are generally free. Your lessons are sent to your e-mail address which you have voluntarily provided. The beauty of newsletters is that you choose the lessons which fit your level. The topics to choose include the use of keywords, search engine optimization, website building, affiliate programs and marketing strategies. Master marketers are experts when it comes to marketing management, communication marketing, and promotional marketing. They are also knowledgeable about product marketing and marketing branding. All of these can be achieved if you have determination. Master Marketer is the latest trend in doing business. It recognizes no limits and sets no boundaries. With online marketing, you are able to do business for 24 hours. Your market is wider as you can serve clients all over the world.
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Online Bachelor Degree Programs ? Hot Careers for Today and Tomorrow
Online bachelor degree programs are the first step for many on their road to a new career or to make a career transition. The days when you could make it to the middle class without a college degree are unfortunately now a thing of the past. Smart students, looking to achieve a level of financial security in our turbulent economy, are doing their homework to find those in-demand careers and industries that are hiring right now and expected to grow in the future.
So what are the up-and-coming hot careers? Some of the areas fastest growing areas for job growth, which require bachelor’s degrees, are expected to be in health care, education, science, engineering, mathematics, communications and other more technical fields.
If you have an aptitude for math and science, the engineering field is definitely a safe bet. Within engineering the highest salaries are going to graduates in the following areas: computer engineering, petroleum engineering, electrical engineering and chemical engineering. In the next couple years, civil engineers are expected to experience the largest increase in demand and biomedical engineers will have the fastest growth from 2010 to 2020.
Within the health care industry, nursing degrees will continue to be in demand until 2018 as baby boomers age and the entire population lives longer. According to the Department of Labor’s Occupational Outlook Handbook for 2010-2011, overall opportunities for registered nurses are expected to be excellent, but may vary by geographical area and type of employment setting. Many employers are currently having difficulty attracting and retaining licensed RN personnel. As baby boomers retire from the nursing profession, there will be tremendous opportunity as the health care industry must replace them. The demand for Registered Nurses will be one of the largest of any career field with the opportunities in physician offices and home health growing rapidly while positions in hospitals will slow.
So how do you take advantage of these trends if you don’t already have a degree in one of these hot fields? Online bachelor degree programs can be a viable route to a new career for adult learners who don’t have the luxury to become full time students or to even go the traditional brick and mortar route on a part-time basis.
Saving the commuting time and avoiding the constraints of a predetermined class meeting schedule, are just a couple of the many benefits of online degree programs. Many colleges and universities now offer programs that combine distance learning delivery methods with some traditional classroom meetings. This can bridge the shortcomings of a 100% online bachelor degree program for degree programs that are more hands-on or require science lab work.
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Student Loans and the Price of An Education
The average student entering higher education will now leave university with debts of around £10,000. This is made up from a combination of student loans, credit cards and overdrafts. This figure however is set to sky rocket as Barclays predicts students graduating in 2010 will be facing £30,000 of debt.
Although some figures show that graduates can expect higher than average earnings, students may not actually be in well-paid jobs for a number of years after graduating leaving. Unfortunately for some, this premium in earnings may never even be enough to clear their accumulated personal debt.
The best way to avoid the struggle is to learn about and prepare yourself for each cost involved over the period of our course including the time it may take you to find a job afterwards.
Firstly, tuition fees – these pay for the actual course you want to take. Before 1999 the Government covered the entire cost. However now, a growing appetite for higher education forced the Government to change the system. This was also justified by claims that during the course of their working lives, a graduate could earn £400,000 more than a non-graduate.
However, not everyone has to pay tuition fees. If your parents’ combined earnings are under a certain threshold they will not have to pay. From the threshold upward, the contributions operate on a sliding scale.
Although, regardless of their earnings, the maximum any family has to pay amounts to around a quarter of the entire cost of the course each year. This is estimated to be around £4,000 and the Government will still pick up the bill for the remaining amount.
As soon as you are accepted into a course you should apply to your Local Education Authority (LEA) to find out what sort of financial help you can obtain.
Thinking of taking out a loan to fund your course? Most students will need to take out one or more student loans to cover their day-to-day living. These are unsecured loans with an especially low interest rate that reflects the rate of inflation meaning you only pay back the exact amount you borrowed.
If you are going to take out a loan you should contact your LEA at the same time you apply for support towards tuition fees. Your LEA will assess the amount of loan you are entitled to and invite you to request how much you want to apply for. You must then tell the Student Loans Company (SLC) of the amount agreed and it will pay the money into your account on the first day of term. Note also that you are eligible for more funds if you are studying in London.
You can apply for one loan for each year of your course and you do not have to start making repayments until the April (end of tax year) after you graduate. From then on, you will only start paying back the loan if you are earning above a certain threshold.
Then the amount you pay back each month will depend on how much you are earning. In the unlikely event that you never earn over the threshold, the loan will be cleared when you turn 65.
Alternatively, most of the big banks will offer an interest-free overdraft facility on their student accounts in the hope that you will stay loyal to them when you start earning in the future.
The amount you get on an overdraft will depend on the bank and will apply to all its student applicants but the usual amount is around £2,000 and it is interest-free.
Although the overdraft will not cost you anything if you stay within your limit, if you should go beyond it, you’ll be charged a hefty interest rate on the difference. You may also be hit with a one-off unauthorised overdraft fee as well.
There is no specific time limit for repaying the overdraft. But after leaving university, the interest-free perk will no longer be available and you will be charged at the same high rates that apply to overdrafts on standard current accounts. It is worth noting that some banks provide a grace period after graduation before the higher rate will kick in.
Another option is of course the old fashioned credit card. However, these rarely carry privileged terms for students. If you take a credit card from a bank you will have to pay exactly the same high interest rates as everyone else. The only difference will be as a student, your credit limit will be lower. Most will find, with credit cards, they will sit on their maxed out balance and pay interest for three years forgetting what the spent the money on in the first place.
Although there are many money lending options for student, seventy per cent of university students’ still finds money a problem and half will have part-time jobs as well as loans. Most students admit they are worried about debt but believe it is unavoidable. Know and research your options carefully and avoid getting into any unnecessary debt, such as credit cards until you have some sort of income.
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Getting Your Online Degree: For a Better Life
Are you crunching numbers, doing research, trying to decide if you want to go back to get that online degree? Are you bored in high school, wondering if you should discard the idea of college and just get a job? Or are you retired and bored, wondering how to keep your mind active and stay interested in life? Think about these benefits to beginning or extending your college education.
An Income You Love
Studies demonstrate the higher your level of education, the higher your income. The US Census Bureau published data stating those with Bachelor’s degrees made an average of $51, 554 in 2004, while their counterparts with high school diplomas made $28, 645 on average. People who didn’t finish high school made around $19,169, while those who earned a Master’s degree or above averaged $78,093 (US Census Bureau News, October 26, 2006). Add to that the fact that college graduates are more likely to have stable work environments with health insurance, retirement accounts, and other benefits, then you see a college degree contributes greatly towards your family’s financial well-being. And while it’s true money can’t buy happiness, it’s also true that stress from financial insecurity—overdue bills, utility disconnects, medical expenses, car repairs, and evictions aren’t joyful circumstances. You want a measure of financial stability; a degree helps you achieve it.
Work You Love
Most people want to be happy in their work. When you attend college, you have the opportunity to discover interests, aptitudes, and occupations you may not encounter otherwise. When you have a job where you’re successful, which is mentally stimulating, enables you to make a positive contribution to your community, your satisfaction with life increases, as do the quality of your relationships. If you’re retired, learning about new subjects through a general studies or other program will keep your mind active and help you interact with others who appreciate your knowledge and experience. A college degree, whether an Associates or a PhD, helps you find work that enhances your life, and through which you enhance the lives of others.
A Life You Love
Your online education program expands your world, giving you insight that helps you make sense of life and deal thoughtfully with others. College graduates tend to be healthier, because they’ve learned how the body works and how to care for it—and a job with health insurance is a frequent benefit of a college education. A higher income helps you support your family and deal with financial demands. The discipline and critical thinking skills you develop in college help you deal with life’s challenges, providing the confidence you need. And the more you know about life, the more interesting it is—and the more interested in life you are, the happier you’ll be.
When you have a degree, you have an asset that can never be taken away. No matter where you go or what you decide to do, your degree can help you achieve your dreams.
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Mortgage Refinancing for Education
Affording a quality education has become a luxury. As the education institutes steadily hike their fees pursuing higher education is a necessary expense which you have to bear for your children. Higher education is not just a must, a specialized course is an added requirement to let them do well in their chosen careers. And this would mean even more expense. Mortgage Refinancing for education is one way to tackle this expense expertly.
Mortgage Refinancing for education is basically been granted a loan secured by your home or property. Mortgage refinancing can be described as – acquiring another loan amount, to pay off the existing loan, then it is termed as mortgage refinancing.
Some of the benefits of mortgage refinancing for education include:
Lowering your monthly repayments,
Lower interest
Getting some extra cash from the equity of your home by borrowing more than you owe on your original loan.
Mortgage refinancing for education is an advisable act because by mortgaging the property, you can draw- out a large amount of money based on the accreditation of the property and current market of the property . This will help to you to fulfill the high fee demands.
There are several ways to obtain a mortgage refinance for education:
In a Cash-Out Mortgage refinance, the refinancing replaces your old mortgage, with a new larger one. For instance, you have a mortgage loan of $1,50,000. But your house is worth $3,50,000. You can raise $1,00,000 cash by refinancing $1,50,000 loan with a $ 3,00,000 mortgage loan. It can be cheaper than taking a home equity loan or second. With the refinanced mortgage amount you can you easily finance the education of your kids.
You can get a mortgage refinancing for education on the basis of your home equity. Equity is the balance value of your house that is left after all the existing debts, like current mortgage are paid off. This gives you the option to utilize the extra cash to fund your children’s education.
There are few things that need to be considered before you decide to opt for mortgage refinancing for education.
Equity: As the real estate industry is on a boom, homeowners now have sizeable equity built up on their house property. The larger the amount of equity you have, the more will be the liquid cash you can have access to.
Monthly Income: You can decide on the term of your loan repayment on the basis of your average monthly income. If your monthly cash flows are tight, than you can opt for a longer repayment term, say 20 years instead of 10years. This will allow you lower monthly installments and leave you with more cash on hand at the end of month. On the other hand if your monthly income is high, you can opt for a shorter term. This will help you save on the total interest you need to pay.
Interest Rates: You can save on interest on refinancing depending on the type of your current mortgage. If the interest rates are high consider the tax benefit you can get on the interest you pay and then decide on the right amount that you can borrow.
A mortgage refinance for education might be necessary for a bright future of your little darling who is all set to leave the nest. Now that you have a fundamental knowledge of Mortgage refinancing for education, there is little to worry about. Just do a little research of the intricacies with a few of the options available for refinancing and select the one that best suits your needs.
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The Dark Secret About Education
Schools with grades K through 12 are largely funded by property taxes, and home owners are increasingly tired of paying this way for basic or higher education.
Colleges and universities base their funding on tuition rates, but middle class parents are finding it increasingly difficult to pay for the ever escalating educational costs. Schools in poor districts are very often inferior to schools in wealthy districts. Colleges in wealthy states are usually better than colleges in poor states.
Discipline problems, crime, substance abuse, violence are increasingly taking their toll on teachers, students, and parents. The quality of education is also declining by significant numbers for many high school seniors. Lots of college students are deficient in reading, writing, spelling, and math skills.
Most frustrating of all, an undergraduate education is no longer a guaranteed passport for a better standard of living. It is long overdue for the educational community to find a way to reform these conditions. I recommend we try using TLP’s, Five Steps to Successful Living. Let’s take a closer look at this framework for social change.
Admit the Problem:
Our educational system is in serious trouble. We can’t define who should pay for it. The present national policy of “Leave No Child Behind” has many weaknesses: emphasis is on proficiency in reading, writing, and math, rather than a more comprehensive view of education.
What happened to social skill training, creativity, physical education, anger management, music, art, citizenship, ethics, nutrition, critical thinking, family living, and a host of other qualities that can help our children become well rounded individuals? We must consider ways to educate our children’s hearts and bodies as well as their minds.
Make a Plan:
We need consistent, integrated goals to educate the whole young person from our neighborhoods, cities, states, and federal government. It is time that we get involved in speaking out against a narrow and limited view of education.
Let us develop unified, national, educational policies, which define performance standards based on mind, body, and emotional wellness. In short, education should embrace emotional health, physical health, as well as mental health skills to build character for our children, adolescents, and young adults.
Steps to reach this more liberated view of education might require new financial partnerships between home owners, tax-payers, governmental agencies, and private industry. Other steps might include finding ways to link the value of higher education with service to the community, and on the job work experiences.
A closer relationship for our children with human service organizations, and potential employers, would also broaden the scope of a comprehensive education. In addition, this new bond with the real community could produce better qualified employees for the business sector, government services, and non-profit agencies.
Reach Out For Help.
Why aren’t our political leaders reaching out more to experts in the field of social sciences, industry, medical, physical, and the health sciences to guide us in the pursuit of resolving our educational crisis? Let’s form study and focus groups to begin to revamp our whole approach.
Our political leaders also need to work more closely with parents, students, and the teachers who know the best ways to improve our educational approach.
Celebrate Strengths.
We desperately need more people who can read, write, think creatively, and act responsibly. We need more creative managers, compassionate leaders, dedicated skilled workers, and altruistic professionals.
We also need people from all ethnic, racial, and cultural backgrounds, who have values, morals, ethics, and the persistence to get the job done. It is time to believe and passionately feel that our educational system can find better ways to prepare our young people for the challenges of the future.
The very survival of our nation and our way of life will probably depend upon young, caring, bright individuals who know how to think and feel outside of the box.
I will continue our discussion about educational reform in my next article called The Dark Secret About Education Part II.
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An Introduction To a 21st Century Education
The concept of a 21st century education might be an abstract and imaginative idea even today. Even when the wonders of technology and high finance continues to be an untapped resource where one can take advantage, the perception of most people still rely on the thinking process of the last century. As they say, people who are enjoying the trend are the ones who end up being ordinary. Thus the concept of 21st century education tries to change the olden perspective. Education in the 21st CenturyOne can ask why wealth-building is a 21st century perspective. In other words, why is there a date to it?The lingo denotes a lot of things. First, the 21st century represents a trend and a future. This kind of education persists at a time where wealth creation through the latest technology exploits, and finance with ever increasing capital mobility is possible. Thus, this idea will continue to be relevant and critical for people willing to find the best economic standing today. Second, 21st century education denotes a time removed from previous centuries. Therefore, there is a historical hinge to the meaning of 21st century education. The 19th century is a drive toward modernity where one can be successful by a good education and hard work. The 20th century talks about a highly urban lifestyle and the increasing relevance of college education and white collar jobs. The 21st century talks about a different perspective in which anyone who sees the trend can identify with. Finally, the aim of 21st century education is to ask people why we think the same way for two centuries. It hopes to promote a new way of looking at a healthy financial lifestyle using today’s practices. Challenging How We LearnThe key to 21st century education is to leave classic education behind or to modify it to be at par with the ever changing times. Unfortunately, the shift of university education to develop people with the skills of today’s demanding job cycles is not catching up. The new education does not only question how we learn but also why we need to study what we study. Does the current educational system adaptive enough to make a student successful ten to twenty years down the line? Are we teaching students about financial responsibility?Changing PerspectiveKnowing that there is a system to teach us how to be successful today is sadly not enough. Since there are no institutions that can put up a 21st century curriculum, we might be hard pressed to equip ourselves with this kind of education. However, if a few very successful people can apply it now, why can’t we?21st century education talks about catching up with a changed perspective. It all starts with opening our minds and being flexible with all the ideas a 21st century education feeds. There are some ideas that we might not agree on, but then we can contribute to the trend all the same. Learning the ropes of today’s world starts with finding way to think creatively in a very creative world, and getting your ideas out in a world that breathes on global fad. Wealth creation is a 21st century perspective. It teaches us that wealth creation is not exclusive for the rich. This time, the masses can be empowered to create a healthy financial lifestyle. By applying the principles of 21st century education, we can exploit the market lows, save us from debt, and ensure comfortable lifestyle years after retirement. A Wise InvestmentAcquiring a 21st century education is definitely not a get-rich quick scheme. Instead, it is an investment that should compound over time and give very rewarding returns. A changing mindset is the first step in being ahead of today’s financial curve along with taking the ideas as a serious educational form. Only with this realisation can we appreciate the importance of 21st century education.
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Test of Acceptance, Understanding and Appeal
The questionnaire comprises of ten questions. An evaluation of the results to the responses of the questions in the questionnaire was done. One hundred copies of questionnaires were distributed to and collected from undergraduates of an Islamic institution. This paper seeks to analyze the questionnaire data. Some of the findings are illustrated by tables.
The objectives of the questionnaire are to test:
the understanding,
acceptability and
preference of appeal in terms of language use.
The questions in the questionnaire were devised to test and analyse the responses to three main objectives: acceptability, understanding and preference of appeal in terms of language use of two sets of extracts from the two translated versions of the Quran. Ten questions were devised to retrieve certain information needed from the students’ responses revolving around the three main objectives. The main questions to test acceptability in the questionnaire are:
Q5: Have you ever thought of the Quran as a text possessing literary value apart from its religious values?
Yes No
Q10:Do you think that the English language translations of the meaning of the Quran can be used as a text for the teaching of literature in the English language especially in Islamic institutions?
Yes No
This writer felt that it is important to know how students felt about the texts used in the classroom. There must be a sense of acceptance or agreement towards the text selected and used in the classroom by the students. This way, learning can reach an optimal level because there is a positive interaction between the student and the text. Thus, the teacher can also benefit from this because the students can then give better feedback in terms of discussions and classroom participation. The main question to test understanding in the questionnaire is:
Q8: In your opinion, which of the 2 sets of the verses above is easier to understand?
A B
This writer felt that it is important to know the students’ level of language competence in terms of understanding a particular text. It will be pointless if the student “likes” or accepts a particular text but is unable to give feedback in the form of written exercises or discussions and classroom participation because of lack of understanding. The main question to test preference of appeal in terms of language use in the questionnaire is:
Q9: Which one of the 2 sets of verses above is more appealing?
A B
This writer felt that it is important to know the students’ preference of appeal in terms of the different types of English language used in the two extracts translated from the same original text. This knowledge will help in the final selection of the text, all things considered. A student may find (A) more appealing than (B) although at the same time, the same student may find (B) easier to understand than (A). The extracts printed in the questionnaire were marked (A) and (B) and the names of the translators were not disclosed. Thus, the responses from the students were based solely on their opinions on reading extracts (A) and (B). This is beneficial for those who have no idea who Muhammad Asad and Abdullah Yusuf Ali are. The results were also illustrated by tables to facilitate better understanding of the responses to the questions in the questionnaire.
THE RESULTS
AGE DISTRIBUTION OF THE RESPONDENTS
All the 100 respondents were Muslims. Their ages ranged from 19 – 28 years of age with a mean of 22 years of age, as explained in Table 1. The majority of the respondents aged between 21 and 23 years .
Table 1: Age Distribution in Years
19-20 11
21-22 65
23-24 21
25-26 1
27-28 2
Nationality of the Respondents
The majority who responded were females, comprising 84%. There were only 16% of males. The majority of students who responded were Malaysians (89%) and 11% were international students, as explained in Table 2. The 11 international students came from different countries: Thailand, Albania, Tanzania, Algeria, Tunis, Pakistan, Sudan, Nigeria, Indonesia. Out of the 11 international students, 5 were males and 6 were females.
Table 2: Nationality of the Respondents
Malaysian Students International Students
89(89%) 11(11%)
Language Background of the Respondents According to the Medium of Instruction in High School
Out of the 100 respondents, the majority were Malay-medium students 77 (77%), 13 (13%) were English-medium students, 7 (7%) were Arabic-medium students and 3 (3%) students under “others”, as explained in Table 3. Specifically, these 3 students had their medium of High School instruction in Thai language (for 2 students) and in Albanian language (for 1 student).
The medium of instruction at this particular institution is English. Thus, the students are expected to deal with texts in the English language. Because the students may have come from High schools which did not have English as their medium of instruction, this writer felt that it is important to know the extent of their exposure to English texts and their ability to understand and interact with the text.
Table 3: Medium of Instruction in High School
Medium No. of Students
Malay-medium Students 77(77%)
English-medium Students 13(13%)
Arabic-medium Students 7(7%)
Others 3(3%)
EDUCATION AT RELIGIOUS SCHOOLS
Out of the 100 respondents, 70 (70%) had attended religious schools which means they have definitely had Quranic studies included in their curriculum. The 70 (70%) respondents had, for various number of years, studied Arabic language. The 30 (30%) respondents who did not attend religious may still have had the opportunity to study Arabic language.
This section will divide the respondents into 3 subgroups: Malay, English and Arabic medium students. Specifically, the 3 students who are under “others” subgoup- 1 attended a religious school and had 6 years of Arabic, 2 did not attend religious schools but they had 7 years and 2 years of Arabic respectively.
Malay-Medium Students
The total number of Malay-medium students was 77. Out of these 77(100%) students,55 (71%) had attended religious schools and the remaining 22 (29%) did not attend religious schools. The majority of the students who attended religious schools 46 (84%) had between 5-8 years of Arabic, as explained in Table 4. The majority of students who did not attend religious schools 18 (82 %) had between 0-4 years of Arabic, as explained in Table 4.
Table 4: Malay-Medium Students’ Attendance of Religious Schools
No of Years Attendance of Religious Schools
Yes No
0-4 0 18(82%)
5-8 46(84%) 4(18%)
9-12 9(16%) 0
13-16 0 0
Total 55 22
English-Medium Students
The total number of English-medium students was 13. Out of these 13(100%) students, 7(54%) had attended religious schools and the remaining 6(46%) of students did not attend religious schools. The majority of the students 3(43 %) who attended religious schools had between 5-8 years of Arabic, as explained in Table 5. The majority of the students 4 (66%) who did not attend religious schools had between 0-4 years of Arabic, as explained in Table 5.
Table 5: English-Medium Students’ Attendance of Religious Schools
No of Years Attendance of Religious Schools
Yes No
0-4 0 4(66%)
5-8 3(43%) 1(17%)
Total 7 6
ARABIC-MEDIUM STUDENTS
The total number of Arabic-medium students was 7. Out of these students, all 7(100%) had attended religious schools. The majority of the students 6 ( 86%) had between 5-12 years of Arabic, as explained in Table 6.
Table 6: Arabic-Medium Students’ Attendance of Religious Schools
No of Years Study of Arabic in years
0-4 0
5-8 3(43%)
9-12 3(43%)
13-16 1(14%)
Total 7
UNDERSTANDING THE QURAN IN ARABIC
Out of 100 respondents, 42(42%) can understand the Quran in Arabic, 58(58%) cannot understand the Quran in Arabic. Those 58(58%) who cannot understand the Quran in Arabic have had various number of years of Arabic language.
This section will divide the respondents into three subgroups: Malay, English and Arabic medium students. Specifically, the 3 students who are under “Others” subgroup- 2 can understand the Quran in Arabic, 1 cannot understand the Quran in Arabic but has had 2 years of Arabic.
Malay-Medium Students
The total number of Malay-medium students was 77. Out of these 77 students, 27 (35%) can understand the Quran in Arabic, 50 (65%) cannot undersatnd the Quran in Arabic. Those 50 students who cannot understand the Quran in Arabic have had various number of years of Arabic language. The majority of the students 28( 56%) had between 5-8 years of Arabic, as explained in Table 7.
Table 7: Malay-Medium and English-Medium Students who cannot Understand the Quran in Arabic
Study of Arabic in Years Medium
Malay English
0-4 17(14%) 4(57%)
5-8 28(56%) 2(28%)
9-12 5(10%) 1(14%)
13-16 0 0
Total 50 7
ENGLISH-MEDIUM STUDENTS
The total number of English-medium students was 13. Out of 13 students, 6(46%) can understand the Quran in Arabic, 7(54%) cannot understand the Quran in Arabic. Those 7 students who cannot understand the Quran in Arabic have had various number of years of Arabic language. The majority of these students 4(57 %) had between 0-4 years of Arabic, as explained in Table 7.
ARABIC-MEDIUM STUDENTS
The total number of Arabic- medium students was 7. Out of these 7 students, all 7 (100%)can understand the Quran in Arabic.
READING THE TRANSLATED VERSIONS OF THE QURAN IN OTHER LANGUAGES
Out of 100 respondents,97 (97%) have read the translated versions of the Quran in other languages, 3 (3%) have not read the translated versions of the Quran in any language. Who are these three students? 1 English-medium student have not read the translated versions of the the Quran in any language although this particular student cannot understand the Quran in Arabic. The other 2 Arabic-medium students who have not read the translated versions of the Quran in any language perhaps because these two students can understand the Quran in Arabic.
This section will divide the respondents into three subgroups: Malay, English and Arabic medium students. Specifically, the 3 students who are under “others” subgroup- 2 have read the English translated version of the Quran and both can understand the Quran in Arabic. 1 student has read the English translated version of the Quran and this particular student cannot understand the Quran in Arabic.
MALAY-MEDIUM STUDENTS
The total number of Malay-medium students was 77. Out of these 77 students, all have read the translated versions of the Quran in other languages: 71 (92%) have read the English translated version of the Quran, 6 (8%) have read the Malay translated version of the Quran, as explained in Table 8.
ENGLISH-MEDIUM STUDENTS
The total number of English-medium students was 13. Out of these 13 students, 12 (92%) have read the english translated version of the Quran, 1 (8%) have not read the translated versions of the Quran in any language, as explained in Table 8.
ARABIC-MEDIUM STUDENTS
The total number of Arabic –medium students was 7. Out of these 7 students, 5 (71%) have read the English translated version of the Quran, 2 (29%) have not read the translated version of the Quran in any language, as explained in Table 8.
Table 8: Malay, English and Arabic Medium Students who have Read Translated Versions of the Quran in Other Languages
Language of Translation Medium
Malay English Arabic
English 71(92%) 12(92%) 5(71%)
Malay 6(8%) 0 0
None 0 1(8%) 2(29%)
Total 77 13 7
READING ABDULLAH YUSUF ALI’S ENGLISH TRANSLATED VERSION OF THE QURAN
Out of 100 respondents, 82 (82%)have read Abdullah Yusuf Ali’s English translated version of the Quran. This section will divide the respondents into three subgroups: Malay, English and Arabic medium students. Specifically, the 3 students under “others” subgroup-all 3 have read Abdullah Yusuf Ali’s English translated version of the Quran.
MALAY-MEDIUM STUDENTS
The total number of Malay-medium students was 77. Out of these 77 students, 65 (84%) have read Abdullah Yusuf Ali’s translated version,12(16%) have not read Abdullah Yusuf Ali’s translated version, as explained in Table 9.
ENGLISH-MEDIUM STUDENTS
The total number of English-medium students was 13. Out of these 13 students, 10 (77%) have read Abdullah Yusuf Ali’s translated version, 3(23%) have not read Abdullah Yusuf Ali’s translated version, as explained in Table 9.
ARABIC-MEDIUM STUDENTS
The total number of Arabic-medium students was 7. Out of these 7 students, 4 (57%) have read Abdullah Yusuf Ali’s translated version, 3(43%) have not read Abdullah Yusuf Ali’s translated version, as explained in Table 9.
Table 9: Reading Abdullah Yusuf Ali’s Translated Version
Reading AYA’s Translation Medium
Malay English Arabic
Yes 65(84%) 10(77%) 4(57%)
No 12(16%) 3(23%) 3(43%)
Total 77 13 7
READING MUHAMMAD ASAD’S ENGLISH TRANSLATED VERSION OF THE QURAN
Out of the100 respondents, only 7(7%) students have read Muhammad Asad’s translated version. This section will divide the respondents into three subgroups: Malay, English and Arabic medium students. Specifically, the 3 students who are under “others” subgroup-all 3 have not read Muhammad Asad’s translated version.
MALAY-MEDIUM STUDENTS
The total number of Malay-medium students was 77. Out of these 77 students, 5(6%) have read Muhammad Asad’s translated version, 72(94%) have not read Muhammad Asad’s translated version, as explained in Table 10.
ENGLISH-MEDIUM STUDENTS
The total number of English-medium students was 13. Out of these 13 students, 2(15%) have read Muhammad Asad’s translated version, 11(85%) have not read Muhammad Asad’s translated version, as explained in Table 10.
ARABIC-MEDIUM STUDENTS
The total number of Arabic-medium students was 7. Out of these 7 students, none have read Muhammad Asad’s translated version, as explained in Table 10.
Table 10: Reading Muhammad Asad’s Translated Version
Reading MA’s Translation Medium
Malay English Arabic
Yes 5(6%) 2(15%) 0
No 72(94%) 11(85%) 7(100%)
Total 77 13 7
ANALYSIS OF ACCEPTABILITY, UNDERSTANDING AND APPEAL
For acceptability: Out of the 100 respondents, all 100% students have answered positively.
For understanding: Out of the 100 respondents, 76(76%) felt that Muhammad Asad’s version is easier to understand than Abdullah Yusuf Ali’s version, 24(24%) felt that Abdullah Yusuf Ali’s version is easier to understand than Muhammad Asad’s version.
For Appeal: Out of the 100 respondents, 59(59%) felt that Muhammad Asad’s version is more appealing than Abdullah Yusuf Ali’s version, 41(41%) felt that Abdullah Yusuf Ali’s version is more appealing than Muhammad Asad’s version.
This section will divide the respondents into three subgroups: Malay, English and Arabic medium students. Specifically, the 3 students who are under “others” subgroup-2 felt that Muhammad Asad’s version is easier to understand than Abdullah Yusuf Ali’s version, 1 felt that Abdullah Yusuf Ali’s version is easier to understand than Muhammad Asad’s version. 1 felt that Muhammad Asad’s version is more appealing than Abdullah Yusuf Ali’s version, 2 felt that Abdullah Yusuf Ali’s version is more appealing than Muhammad Asad’s version.
Table 14 compares the responses of Malay, English and Arabic medium students in understanding and appeal of both translated versions.
MALAY-MEDIUM STUDENTS
The total number of Malay-medium students was 77. Out of these 77 students, 58(75%) felt that Muhammad Asad’s version is easier to understand than Abdullah Yusuf Ali’s version, 19(25%) felt that Abdullah Yusuf Ali’s version is easier to understand than Muhammad Asad’s version, as explained in Table 11.
Table 11: Response of Malay-Medium Students to Understanding and Appeal
Translated version AYA MA
Understanding 19(25%) 58(75%)
Appeal 31(40%) 46(60%)
Out of 77 students, 46(60%) felt that Muhammad Asad’s version is more appealing than Abdullah Yusuf Ali’s version, 31(40%) felt that Abdullah Yusuf Ali’s version is more appealing than Muhammad Asad’s version, as explained in Table 11.
ENGLISH-MEDIUM STUDENTS
The total number of English-medium students was 13. Out of these 13 students, 11(85%) felt that Muhammad Asad’s version is easier to understand than Abdullah Yusuf Ali’s version, 2(15%) felt that Abdullah Yusuf Ali’s version is easier to understand than Muhammad Asad’s version, as explained in Table 12.
Out of these 13 students, 7(54%) felt that Muhammad Asad’s version is more appealing than Abdullah Yusuf Ali’s version, 6(46%) felt that Abdullah Yusuf Ali’s version is more appealing than Muhammad Asad’s version, as explained in Table 12.
Table 12: Response of English-Medium Students to Understanding and Appeal
Translated version AYA MA
Understanding 2(15%) 11(85%)
Appeal 6(46%) 7(54%)
ARABIC-MEDIUM STUDENTS
The total number of Arabic-medium students is 7. Out of these 7 students, 5(71%) felt that Muhammad Asad’s version is easier to understand than Abdullah Yusuf Ali’s version, 2(29%) felt that Abdullah Yusuf Ali’s version is easier to understand than Muhammad Asad’s version, as explained in Table 13.
Table 13: Response of Arabic-Medium Students to Understanding and Appeal
Translated version AYA MA
Understanding 2(29%) 5(71%)
Appeal 2(29%) 5(71%)
Out of these 7 students, 5(71%) felt that Muhammad Asad’s version is more appealing than Abdullah Yusuf Ali’s version, 2(29%) felt that Abdullah Yusuf Ali’s version is more appealing than Muhammad Asad’s version, as explained in Table 13.
CONCLUSION
Out of the100 respondents, the general responses, without any subdivisions, revolving around the main objectives of the questionnaire are:
For acceptability: 100% answered positively.
For understanding: 76% MA, 24% AYA
For preference of appeal: 59% MA, 41% AYA
Table 14: Responses of all Medium of Students to Understanding and Appeal of Both Translated Versions
AYA MA
Malay English Arabic Malay English Arabic
Understanding
19(25%) 2(15%) 2(29%) 58(75%) 11(85%) 5(71%)
Appeal
31(40%) 6(46%) 2(29%) 46(60%) 7(54%) 5(71%)
Although the majority of the respondents have read and are more familiar with AYA’s translated version of the Quran, MA’s version of the Quran scored higher in terms of understanding and appeal. The possible conclusions that can be derived or deduced from this include:
1)AYA’s translated version of the Quran is well-circulated.
2)MA’s translated version of the Quran uses more straightforward, prosaic language and less classicism, poetic and symbolism.
3)The preference of appeal for MA’s translated version of the Quran is not dependent on the level of proficiency in the Arabic language. The responses are clearly based on the respondents’ opinion, level or knowledge of the English language.
QUESTIONNAIRE
Name:(optional) : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Religion : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Age : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . years
Male/female : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Nationality : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Language of instruction in high school : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Have you attended a religious school : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
How many years did you study Arabic : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Other languages learnt in high school : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Languages spoken at home : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Languages spoken among friends : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Please circle the answer of your choice:
1) Do you read the Quran in Arabic? Yes No
If yes, can you understand the Quran in Arabic? Yes No
2) Do you ever read the translations of the meaning of the Quran in any other language? Yes No
If yes, in what language? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3) Have you ever read Abdullah Yusuf Ali’s English language translation of the meaning of the Quran? Yes No
4) Have you ever read Muhammad Asad’s English language translation of the meaning of the Quran? Yes No
If yes to 3) and 4), which do you prefer to read? . . . . . . . …….
5) Have you ever thought of the Quran as a text possessing literary value apart from its religious value? Yes No
(A)
Consider these messages, sent forth in waves
and then storming on with a tempest’s force!
Consider these messages that spread the
truth far and wide,
thus separating right and wrong with all clarity,
and then giving forth a reminder,
promising freedom from blame or offering a warning!
6) Is the English language used in the verses above easy to understand? Yes No
(B)
By the Winds Sent Forth
One after another
(To man’s profit);
Which then blow violently
In tempestuous Gusts,
And scatter (things)
Far and wide;
Then separate them,
One from another,
Then spread abroad
A Reminder,Whether of Justification
Or of Warning;-
7) Is the English language used in the verses above easy to understand? Yes No
8) In your opinion, which of the 2 sets of verses above is easier to understand? (A) (B)
9) Which one of the 2 sets of verses above is more appealing? (A) (B)
10) Do you think that the English language translation of the meaning of the Quran can be used as a text for the teaching of literature in the English language especially in Islamic institutions? Yes No
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The relationship between our spirit and our atomic body
I’m not a scientist or engineer, I like to invent things and I needed to learn more about atoms for one of my inventions. As I was educating myself on the atom I realized what the atom can do and can not do.
The atom- or should I say atoms being there is 112 known atoms, 84 are natural and some are engineered. The sciences use math to understand what how atoms function and the forces within the atoms, math is the universal language! An atom basically has a nucleus, which is made up of protons and neutrons. Within a proton and neutron there are quarks. There are strong forces between the neutron and proton that keep them together within the nucleus. Protons and neutrons make up the majority of the mass (99%) of an atom. There are also electrons, where they orbit around the protons and neutrons. The electrons create movement by the magnetic energy that is made up of opposite charges from the proton an electron. The electron is a negative charge and the proton is the positive charge. Basically one atom consist of mass, movement, forces and energy. The atom is a masterpiece of engineering, the intelligence behind the design and manufacturing of the atom is beyond my imagination and I have a good imagination.
All matter is composed of elements. Examples of elements are hydrogen, oxygen, carbon, nitrogen, copper, sodium, and lead. Each element is composed of atoms of a unique type. Atoms are composed of subatomic particles including protons, electrons and neutrons. These particles have positive, negative and neutral (no) charge, respectively. The protons and neutrons are in the nucleus of the atom and the electron spin around the nucleus in paths called orbital. Sets of electrons occupy concentric shells around the nucleus, like planetary orbits around the sun. Atoms are electrically neutral, having the same number of electrons as protons, where the electrons and protons are equal in the amount of electrical charge, except when they exist as ion, where there are more protons or electrons.
Another amazing feature is how atoms work together. Atoms bond together by sharing electrons. Collectivity they form our earth, solar system, galaxy, universe and everything within. They work in harmony so we can exist and as many other living organism in our universe. Collectivity atoms come together to create a vehicle for our spirit to experience this universe of atoms. The human body consist of approximately 75 to100 trillion cells (I also read there is 10 trillion cells in a human- I never counted them) and each cell consist of approximately 100 trillion atoms. We have a universe of atoms within our body. How big are we, how small are we, what is small and what is big?
In a human-these group of atoms are bonded together to create a molecule, a group of molecules together doing a job in a cell can be considered an organelle (the organs of the cells) a group of organelles is a cell (four cell groups in a human), cells make tissues, then organs, then organ systems, then an organism, organism makes a human, this is a beautiful cooperation of atoms. Then we breathe atoms, eat atoms and drink atoms to keep our cells what we call alive. From the atoms that we are made of we can see, touch, hear, feel, taste, smell, process information and store information. Our atoms will collective reproduce from other atoms to create new life. This harmony of atoms is truly amazing and magnificent.
As amazing as the atom is, the atom has it limitations. An atom can not love, have emotions, nor create a thought singular or collectively.
Like I mentioned early an atom has mass, movement, forces and energy. Atoms collectively create a fantastic vehicle for our spirit to reside in so we can experience this world. Just like the purpose of a car is to take us to point A to point B, we get in the vehicle and drive it. We make all the decisions within the car. In additionally similar to computers that can process and store information, but computers can’t love or create a thought. Our spirit makes most of the decisions within our atomic body, world and universe. Our spirit does not start here and will not end here. Our spirit can enter any organism in the universe.
Our brains are designed to process and store X-amounts of information and in our world we have the most capabilities. We do not know about the rest of our galaxy or universe. I’m confident there is life throughout the universe that is designed to process and store greater amounts of information. I also think there is life with more or less than four cell groups or different cell groups and they could have additional, less and different senses than us. But they would be part of the same spiritual family that we come from.
A growing industry of engineering and science will be atomic engineers for the better of the human race. New diagnostic equipment will be needed to probe atoms. Technology needs to benefit humankind not the bottom line for corporations.
The human race needs to evolve with a balance between our spirit and this atomic world. Our love needs to be enriched so we are an unconditional loving and giving race. Love has many components to it, giving, caring, truth, wisdom, faith, hope, happiness, feeling of togetherness and belonging and a spiritual connection. If a person loves is not enriched or developed the opposite of these components will fill the void, loneliness, sadness, hate, anger, greed, jealousy, paranoia, selfishness, dependences, confusion, prejudice and violence. I view the maturity level of our race at the terrible two’s; we need to educate ourselves to the next level of maturity. Basically the issues we have in today’s world. We should be using our school system to educate our children how to love and feel loved.
Just some of mine thoughts
Frank Reiss
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Careers for Online Criminal Justice Degree’s Graduate
Introduction
The legal field is growing at a rapid pass, one of the encouraging factor for this growth is the investment of government in homeland security. The investment in homeland security has also lead to the increase of demand in public and private safety. Many law enforcement departments now have increased the academic requirements for law enforcement officer, security personnel or other position that requires knowledge in criminal justice, most of them require at least an associate degree for the position or career promotion. This means that in the field of criminal justice, qualified and skilled professionals are always in demand. Earn Your Criminal Justice Degree Online
To upgrade the skills & knowledge in criminal justice or to enter into this highly demand field without stopping your current work (or simply busy) isn’t as hard as it used to be. The time, distance and financial constraints of higher education have all but disappeared with the arrival of distance learning and now everyone who are interested in this field can earn the criminal justice degree via online technology. Today, many traditional universities and online colleges offer Criminal Justice Degrees and the students can attend the courses online. Among the universities who offers Criminal Justice Degree Online are:
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Online Nursing Degree: Getting Your BSN Online Can Save You Time And Money
The internet has brought about a revolution in our lives that is still progressing to its peak. The reach of the internet into newer areas of our lives keeps on expanding every day. When you think of an online nursing degree it does raise a lot of questions in any person’s mind as to why one should go for an online degree.
The online nursing degree has been gaining popularity in recent years. What are the reasons for this you may ask? One reason is that the curriculum has been designed to take up less of your time as apposed to having to attend regular classes at your local, or not so local, college.
One of the main reasons the online nursing degree has gained popularity and momentum is because it can be cheaper than the traditional college where you have to attend classes daily.
Expenses involved in your online nursing degree are lessened to an extent because of the ability to digitally receive study text and books, and not having to go to a bookstore and pay for these. By not having to travel and put yourself up in a dorm or apartment for instance, you save time and money.
By getting your online nursing degree you will not only save loads of time and money, but you will start to see other opportunities open up to you. So its not just a simple online college degree you will be taking on. Supervisory roles may well be in your future as well in the nursing field. Because getting an online nursing degree shows leadership and self motivation.
And you don’t have to stop at a BSN with your online nursing degree. You can also obtain your masters and PhD with online education. So by doing your college course work online, you will free up a lot more time and money so you can better manage other areas of your life such as family, job and time for yourself.
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Holistic Career Training Programs
Find Holistic Career Training Programs in the United States and Canada. If you are searching for an ideal healthcare profession that doesn’t just treat symptoms, but addresses the whole individual – body, mind and spirit, then enrolling in one of several holistic career training programs may be a fine option for you.
Today, holistic career training programs are widespread and easily accessible. Whether you choose to participate in a holistic career training program that emphasizes bodywork, such as acupressure, sports massage or Swedish massage; or you elect to pursue a holistic career training program to become a holistic health practitioner, there are many studies in which one can apply. For example, if you are interested in becoming a kinesiologist, there are holistic career training programs that specialize in kinesiology education.
If students are drawn to chiropractic, then there are natural healing schools that offer holistic career training programs in chiropractic, which entail over 4,000 course hours – including class, lab and clinical training in chiropractic philosophy and techniques, biology, anatomy and physiology, radiology and various related subject matter.
For those intrigued by detoxification, holistic career training in colon hydrotherapy may be a field of interest. In a colon hydrotherapy course, students will learn about anatomy and physiology, as well as colon therapy procedures that are effectively used to naturally detoxify the colon and digestive system.
Another fascinating field where holistic career training can be beneficial is herbal medicine. Students who pursue holistic career training programs in this healthcare system will find that there are several levels of education one can achieve. In particular, some herbal medicine courses are offered through naturopathic schools and Chinese medicine schools. In these instances, students will be introduced to and learn about Eastern medicine philosophies, as well as ancient herbal remedies. Furthermore, holistic career training in this specific field can be applied to established holistic wellness practices and services.
Overall, holistic career training provides students with essential skills and knowledge in a variety of healing arts, which subsequently, are quickly growing in demand. Depending on the holistic profession you elect to pursue, income potential varies but with the trend shifting more and more to alternative and natural healthcare, successful graduates of one of several holistic career training programs can anticipate both personally and professionally rewarding occupations in the long term.
If you (or someone you know) are interested in finding holistic career training programs, let professional training within fast-growing industries like massage therapy, cosmetology, acupuncture, oriental medicine, Reiki, and others get you started! Explore career school programs near you. Holistic Career Training Programs
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The CollegeBound Network
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A Guide to Online Degrees – How to be a Success Online Student
Online degree programs are an excellent way for busy professions to gain advanced training and certifications either for the purpose of career path switch, job promotion preparation or just to enhance their working field’s related knowledge. However, not all online students will successfully completing their online program. A success or a failure of an online student in his learning program is affected by a few factors. Here are a few key elements that a success online student must have: Time Management
One the key advantage of online degree program is it allows you to plan your learning schedule, at you own time and own pace. This key advantage of online degree program is also the key factor that cause many online student fail in completing their online degree program. Time management may be the biggest determination factor in succeeding at your online degree program.
You must be very proactive in your studies and take responsibility for your own learning, manage your time on your learning schedule, doing the assignment an constantly communicate with your professors and peers through online learning channel prepare by the school to solve your doubts and question of courses.
To master time management, first determine what time of day you think you will be most focused on your studies. Are you a morning person or a night owl? Do you concentrate best after a cup of coffee or after lunch? Once you narrow in on a time of day reserve a designated allotment of time to dedicate to your course. Self-Motivated
Although getting your degree online does not mean that you are study alone because you still get connected with your professors and peers through online channels such as message board, chat, forum & etc, You won’t find the professor, or another student reminding you to get to work, stay on task, or turn your assignments in on time; hence, you must be self-motivated to be successful. Read & Understand in Electronic Text Format
Some online learning materials are in audio and video format, but most of them still in electronic text format. Be an online student, you need to do a lot of reading in text format rather than hearing the lectures’ teaching. There are students who absorbed the knowledge faster with explanation in lecture hall, but to be a success online student, you need to be better in understanding the knowledge conveys in text format. Place of Study
Some students need absolute silence while others can’t seem to concentrate without noise in the background. No matter what your preference is, a place that is free from distractions is recommended. If you can’t escape in-home interruptions, bring alone your laptop to library or a coffee shop. Schedule your designated study time when you can be in a distraction-free environment and your chances for success will increase and the time you need to devote to your course will decrease. Seeking for Answers on Your Questions
Many online courses come with instructor support or mentor by an online lecturer so that students never feel lost or alone during the e-learning process. Don’t be afraid to ask questions, you can always direct inquiries to your lecturer.
Online chat rooms, if provided, are another great resource for you to seek for answers. Online chat rooms give students a forum to meet other students taking the same course and ask questions or discuss assignments.
To be a success online student, you must be able to utilize the online resources provided by the school to communicate with your professors, peers and get your questions answered. In Summary
In a nutshell, success in online learning requires self-discipline, organization, and the ability to use modern technology to communicate with your professors and peers.
Next “A Guide To Online Degrees” series, I will talk about online degree pricing. See you on “A Guide To Online Degrees – Considering Online Degree Pricing”.
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Career Clusters, a Bridge Between Education and Career Planning
Since 1960s, career cluster resources have been used as career exploration and planning tools in schools, learning communities, and organizations across the nation. Career Clusters is a system that matches educational and career planning.
Step 1: Identifying Career Cluster Interest Areas
Career clusters are groups of similar occupations and industries. When teachers, counselors, and parents work with teens, college students, and adults, the first step is to complete career cluster assessment. The assessment identifies the highest career cluster areas. Career assessments show teens, college students, and adults rankings from one of the following 16 Interests Areas or Clusters:
1. Agriculture, Food, & Natural Resources
2. Architecture & Construction
3. Arts, A/V Technology & Communication
4. Business, Management & Administration
5. Education & Training
6. Finance
7. Government & Public Administration
8. Health Science
9. Hospitality & Tourism
10. Human Services
11. Information Technology
12. Law, Public Safety & Security
13. Manufacturing
14. Marketing, Sales & Service
15. Science, Technology, Engineering & Mathematics
16. Transportation, Distribution & Logistics
Step 2: Exploring Career Clusters and Related Careers
After pinpointing the highest career clusters, teens, college students, and adults explore the different careers and create education plans. Career cluster tools used in career and educational planning include:
LISA: A comprehensive career cluster database
Models
Brochures
Pathways
High school plan of study
Interest and Skills Areas
Crosswalks
After completing a career cluster assessment, teens, college students, and adults look at web sites, career models, brochures, pathways, and high school plans. One of the most unique comprehensive career cluster resources is the Louisiana Integrated Skills Assessment (LISA), an Internet program. LISA lets you explore career clusters, careers, abilities, training requirements, and more. There are 3 steps in the LISA program:
STEP 1: Click here to select a Career Cluster,
STEP 2: Click here to select a Career Group
STEP 3: Explore Occupations within this Career Group
In Step 1, when you choose a career cluster, you will see a description of the cluster. When you select a career group in Step 2, you see different careers. Finally, in Step 3, you see a wealth of information:
Job descriptions
Educational and training requirements
Crosswalks, for example ONET, DOT, GOE, and other codes
Abilities
Knowledge
Skills
Tasks
Work Vales
Labor Market Information
Even though LISA is an awesome program, in classroom or workshop settings, you need printed materials. When using printed materials, the career model is the best place to start. Models provide excellent overviews listing the cluster definitions, sample careers, pathways, knowledge, and skills. Visual models show career clusters, the cluster subgroups, and related careers. Models are an excellent way to introduce career clusters.
For presentations, workshops, and group discussions, the career cluster brochures provide additional information. Adults and teens read about the different careers that are available in each career cluster. Teachers, counselors, and parents use the brochures to solidify adults’ and teens’ potential career or educational decisions. The brochures cover topics such as:
Definition of career clusters
Careers
Career pathways
Employment outlooks
Skills
Credentials
Teachers, counselors, and parents use career pathways for more detailed information. The career pathways are subgroups or areas of concentration within career clusters. Each pathway contains career groups. The career groups have similar academic skills, technical skills, educational requirements, and training requirements. Career pathways are plans of study that outline required secondary courses, post secondary courses, and related careers. The career pathways are essential tools that teachers, counselors, parents, and other adults use to give educational planning advice.
Several web sites feature High School Plans of Study. These study plans show required, elective, and suggested courses for each grade level. The school plans also match the career clusters to related careers, career pathways, and post-secondary options. Teachers, counselors, and parents find that these school plans are guides for selecting the right high school courses to match potential careers. Beyond high school, the Utah System for Higher Education has created a College Major Guide. Parents, teachers, and counselors can use the guide to match college majors to Certificate and Degree Programs.
Additional Resources for Counselors and Teachers
For planning curriculum and educational programs, there are detailed Knowledge and Skills Charts and Cluster Crosswalks. The knowledge and Skills expand upon the information listed on the career cluster models. For each knowledge and skill area, there are performance elements and measurement criteria. Crosswalks show the relationships between career clusters and other career models:
Career clusters build a bridge between education and career planning. Different types of career cluster resources are available: videos, web sites, booklets, brochures, activity sheets, and workbooks. Teachers, counselors, and parents use career cluster resources to successfully complete career and educational planning.
Resources:
American Careers Career Paths, Career Communications, 6701 W. 64th St. , Overland, KS 66202, 800-669-7795
Career Click, Illinois Department of Employment Security,33 South State Street, Chicago, IL 60603, (312) 793-5700
CIP Code Index by Career Cluster, Adult & Postsecondary CTE Division, Bureau of Career and Technical Education, 333 Market Street, Harrisburg, PA 17126, (717) 772-0814
Cluster and Career Videos, Career One Stop, U. S. Department of Labor, Frances Perkins Building, 200 Constitution Ave. , NW, Washington, DC 20210, 866-4-USA-DOL
College Major Guide Utah System for Higher Education, Board of Regents Building, The Gateway, 60 South 400 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84101-1284, (801) 321-7100
Find Careers (Videos), iSeek Solutions, Minnesota State Colleges and Universities, Wells Fargo Place, 30 7th St. E. , Suite 350, St. Paul, MN 55101-7804
High School Plans of Study, New Hampshire Department of Education, 101 Pleasant Street
Concord, NH 03301-3860, (603) 271-3494
Introduction to Career Clusters, Career Education, Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, P. O. Box 543
Blacklick, OH 43004-0544,
Louisiana Integrated Skills Assessment (LISA), customized Internet version of OSCAR, a product of the Texas Workforce Commission/Career Development Resources, TWC/CDR, Austin, TX 78753
Maryland Career Clusters, Maryland State Department of Education 200 West Baltimore Street Baltimore, MD 21201,
Rhodes Island’s Career Clusters, Rhode Island’s Career Resource Network, 1511 Pontiac Avenue, Cranston, RI 02920, 401-462-8790
School to Career Clusters, State of Connecticut, Department of Labor, Job Bank, 645 South Main Street, Middletown, CT 06457, (860)754-5000
States’ Career Clusters Initiative (SCCI), 1500 W. Seventh Avenue, Stillwater, OK 74074
Career Pathway Plans, Career Cluster, Knowledge and Skills Charts
VTECS Cluster Frameworks, VTECS, 1866 Southern Lane, Decatur, GA, 30033,404-679-4501 ext 543
What are Career Clusters? Career Prospects System, New Mexico Career Resource Network, CAREER TECHNICAL AND WORKFORCE EDUCATION BUREAU (CTWEB), Education Building, 300 Don Gaspar, Santa Fe, NM 87501, (505) 827-6512
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Student Loans: Cost Effective Funds for Your Education
Want to go for higher studies but lack sufficient funds? Wondering how to finance your educational needs? Stop thinking and start acting! Get student loans as they provide you correct financial assistance to assist your dream of higher education. There is no better way to finance your education than these cost effective loans.
Student loans can be opted to cover various education related expenses that students may find difficult to handle. They can pay electricity bills, accommodation charges, library or examination fee, commuting expenses, purchase books and pay food expense.
Student loans can be classified as secured and unsecured. For secured student loans you are required to offer any of your valuable assets as collateral. You can place your house, car and valuable documents as security. You can borrow a substantial loan amount. As against in case of unsecured loans there is no such obligation of placing security. The amount offered is less and rates are slightly higher.
The loan amount for student loans generally depends on the type of course you want to apply for. Students can apply for graduate and post graduate courses. You can even opt for professional, regular and part time courses as per your choice.
Student loans are offered at lower rate of interest so that you don’t find it difficult to repay. The repayment term is quite flexible and students are allowed a repayment break of 6-9 months. Meanwhile you can search for a suitable job and start the repayment term as soon as you get the job.
Bad credit holders can also apply! Yes student loans are open to all types of borrowers. Those facing bad credit like arrears, defaults, CCJs, late payments, bankruptcy and missed payments can approach and entail student loans.
Student loans can be applied through banks, other financial institutions and online. Applying online is convenient and simple as you just have to fill a simple online form. The processing of loan also takes place online which makes the process hassle free and quick.
Now fulfill your educational requirements and get finance for your education with the help of student loans. There are no additional charges or hidden costs involved.
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All the Benefits Pertaining To College Courses Online
The latest trend in earning college credits and even a college degree is using the Internet and the power of taking courses directly online with a college or university. To stay competitive most colleges and universities now offer degrees, and college courses online to make it easy, convenient, and less expensive for students of all ages to earn college credit. You will find earning a college degree online or taking courses online is very popular. The total enrollment of any given college can reach up to fifty percent online. Over the past few years the growth of online courses and degrees has increased tremendously and continues to grow in numbers. Online courses are very convenient because you work on them at your own pace and in your own time. Many people are able to keep their present job and work on a degree at home without interrupting their work schedule. For many individuals this is the only practical way to work on a degree and earn college credits. For most majors, you will be able to find a college or university that offers the specific program you are looking for and will be able to earn your degree in as little as 4 years or less. This is an exciting and very positive approach to working on an Associate Degree, Bachelor’s Degree, Master’s Degree, or even a Doctor’s Degree. Many people enjoy the challenge of working independently on earning college credits through this method. The courses and the methods of learning online also have improved. College are now able to offer tutoring to help you, financial aid, and students services for those using the online method to earn an education. Courses are designed to be easy to follow and are programmed with special goals and objectives that you will work on to accomplish. The college syllabus will enable you to know and understand exactly what you must accomplish to complete the course. There is also a time table that will help you to keep on track to complete your course in the allotted time. Everything you need to complete your education will be outlined and all the supporting material that you need will be easy to obtain and access. One of the other advantages of taking online courses is that many times it is much cheaper than going to a campus. Obviously you will save time and money on commuting costs, meals, room expenses. and car maintenance. In some cases your tuition costs will be lower as well. The end result is that you are earning a quality education at a lower price right online as compared to living or commuting on campus. In addition to the quality education you will find that most colleges and universities are fully accredited making it easy to transfer your courses to another place later down the road. In many cases you will be able to complete your degree without ever stepping onto a campus. With all these advantages it is easy to understand why college courses online have increased in number and offerings over the last few years. You will find using and taking online courses one of the best bargains available for anyone wishing to continue their education.
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The Scope Of MBA Distance Learning
Distance learning has proved to be highly beneficial to many qualified and skilled people- from young students to working professionals. It allows learners of all age groups and diversified backgrounds to come together on the same platform and experience personal advancement on a global scale. Distance learning can be a great option for executives as well as students to earn professional education degrees while being employed at the same time.
The concept of distance learning is rapidly spreading in the sphere of MBA education and many students have found it to be useful in their career. Online learning is a part of the distance learning programs in most universities or colleges. It offers numerous benefits that the traditional MBA programs generally lack and some of them may include-
A. Flexibility: The biggest advantage of distance learning programs is the extent of learning flexibility one can get from these programs. Students can review their study materials at their own pace and have an all-round experience in terms of their social and professional perspectives.
B. Cost: Unlike most MBA courses, programs offered through distance learning are generally affordable and cost-effective. Distance learning eliminates the costs incurred on infrastructure, travelling and a variety of other peripheral expenses otherwise incurred by ‘full-time’ or ‘regular MBA program’ students.
C. Learning while working: Distance learning MBA programs are boons to professionals or executives especially those working in the corporate companies who are in dire need to polish their management skills. These programs can provide them an extra advantage in terms of professional advancement and job-security.
D. Wide reach: Students living in small or remote areas can also benefit from these distance learning MBA programs. It is a golden chance for those students residing in remote places or far-flung areas to obtain MBA education from renowned management institutes through the distance learning program, across the globe.
E. Gain extra knowledge: Besides gaining basic business administration knowledge, students can also acquire other skills such as those related to the usage of computers and internet in the case of online MBA programs. Distance learning MBA education has helped the students in their journey to the corporate world.
F. Ease of accessibility: With the advent of innovative programs like distance education, the concept of classroom learning has gone through a sea-change. Classroom teaching limitations imposed by traditional MBA programs are replaced with accessibility– students need not be physically present for attending classroom lectures. Distance learning MBA programs, especially over the internet, are accessible from any part of the world and at any time.
However, there are also a number of disadvantages associated with distance learning procedure as compared to the full-time MBA programs. So, a student interested in pursuing distance education in management studies must know why one would like to opt for it. Institute of Management Technology Dubai offer full-time MBA programs with specializations in different facets of MBA education. The MBA programs at IMT Dubai provide a thorough understanding of the principles of management studies and a first-hand exposure to the real corporate world management situations.
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Personal Training Fitness Programs Today
Find Personal Training Fitness Programs in the United States and Canada. Today, one can choose from a variety of personal training fitness programs that are geared for both the novice and expert level of education. Depending on the personal training fitness programs that are available, there are some courses that are more comprehensive in nature and require a number of years to complete; while others can be finished in less than six months.
Typical subject matter that is provided through personal training fitness programs includes sports training and advanced training, mind and body therapies, as well as nutrition and weight management, and individualized coaching courses.
In general, most personal training fitness programs entail in-depth studies in exercise physiology, kinesiology, personal training, functional anatomy, biomechanics, flexibility and strength training, nutrition assessments and program development, exercise applications and other physical regimens.
A number of personal training fitness programs provide workshops, seminars and continuing education classes in resistance training, customized program designs, introductory and advance biomechanics, preventive healthcare and nutrition, and other related subject matter.
Students who have completed personal training fitness programs typically earn a diploma or certificate of completion. However, candidates wishing to become nationally certified must meet specific eligibility and educational requirements to take the NSCA Personal Trainer Certification exam; including training in CPR, and AED.
For the most part, graduates of personal training fitness programs go onto achieving lucrative careers as personal trainers, fitness trainers and exercise instructors at health resorts, fitness clubs, aerobic clinics, physical therapy centers, and other wellness and health-related facilities.
If you (or someone you know) are interested in finding personal training fitness programs, let professional training within fast-growing industries like massage therapy, cosmetology, acupuncture, oriental medicine, Reiki, and others get you started! career school programs near you. Personal Training Fitness Programs Today
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Graduation courses and colleges available in India
The education and the career options in India have been growing with the increasing demand of the people in different professions. The colleges of India have come up with different courses, which fulfil the demands of the industry and teach the students with the required skills. The students are required to be instilled with the basic skills, from the graduation level itself, so that they do justice with their profession and at their post graduation level they know the basics of the subject and are aware of the subject and its topics. Earlier the professional courses were available only at the post graduate level, but now with the change in time and according to the need of the hour, many professional courses in fields like management, computer sciences, communications, etc. are available at the graduation level also.
Other than the professional courses, the colleges of India have many traditional courses at the graduation level. There are a lot of government colleges in India, which have basic graduation courses. Delhi University is the main education institute, which has a number of colleges under it, which provides the graduation courses as mentioned, below:
v B. A. (Hons) Mathematics
v B. A. (Hons) Applied Psychology
v B. A. (Hons) English
v B. A. (Hons) Bengali
v B. Ed. Home Science
v B. A. (Hons) Economics
v B. A. (Hons) French
v B. A. (Hons) Psychology
v B. A. (Hons) Punjabi
v B. A. (Hons) German
v B. Sc. (Hons) Mathematics
v B. A. (Hons) Hindi Journalism
v B. A. (Hons) History
v B. A. (Hons) Journalism
v B. A. (Hons) Music
v B. Sc. (Hons) Computer Science
v B. Sc. (Hons) Home Science Human Development
v B. Sc. Applied Life Sciences
v B. Sc. (Hons) Home Science Food & Nutrition
v B. Com
These are few of the main courses, other than this; there are many, which are opted by the students in the field they want. There are around 77 colleges covered under Delhi University. There are many other universities and colleges in other parts of India, which provides courses in many fields. There are separate engineering and medical colleges in India also, which provide undergraduate as well as post graduate courses to the students. Some of the most popular and renowned colleges in India, which provide undergraduate courses to students, are:
v Presidency College, Kolkata
v St. Xavier’s College, Kolkata
v Hindu College, New Delhi
v Loyola College, Chennai
v Faculty of Law, University of Delhi,Delhi
v Shri Ram College Of Commerce, Delhi
v Maulana Azad Medical College, Delhi
v All India Institute of Medical Sciences (AIIMS),Delhi
v Hansraj College, Delhi
v National Academy of Legal Studies and Research University, Hyderabad
v Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur
v KPB Hinduja College of commerce and Economics, Mumbai
Every college has their speciality and has a set number of courses, which it provides to the students. The courses in the colleges go on getting added, with the changing trends in the industry. Students want to gain excellence in the field they choose for their career, due to which the colleges are required to choose the college of their choice. The colleges in India have their courses structured in a way that the students after completing their education are able to give their best in their work field. The students are provided with world class facilities and faculty members, which are trained to teach them with the best expertise. The teachers in the colleges of India use the traditional methods for teaching and always make an effort to make the student the master of his field. The degrees of the Indian colleges are valid all over in the world, and the students have proved their talent across the globe by making achievements in their respective fields.
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Forensic Nursing Online Degree Programs
If you are the one who likes challenging tasks and interested in a career in health care but do not want to spend eight years in a university then forensic nursing online degree programs are the best option for you. As a forensic nurse your job will require you to involve in criminal cases and the people who have suffered the criminal activities and are affected both emotionally and physically. You will be expected to work along with the doctors, detectives and police forces for solving the cases, collecting evidences and information. This is certainly the best choice for you if you desire an exciting career. If investigative sciences and victim encouragement grab your interest then forensic nursing is the career for you. If you are one of those who desire to work along with studying then various online nursing degree programs are available.
Forensic nurses are called at the crime scenes re accidents for teaming up with detectives, to collect evidence and blood samples. They have to treat the survivors of sexual assaults, accidents, the prey of disregard and mistreatment. The job will let you work with real issues and is both fast-paced and exciting. The online forensic nursing degree programs are a unique option for students who desire an elastic learning option. These online forensic nursing degree programs are also professional studies just like the on-campus programs.
He online degree programs in forensic nursing are amongst the most popular courses available online offered by the various recognized universities and colleges. The reasons are not so mind boggling. Generally, professional working nurses have to render their services for irregular hours. Therefore, the online forensic nursing degree programs offer maximized scheduling suppleness. The rich, interactive and user friendly course substance augments better understanding and retention of the compound scientific and medical material. The online programs are expanding continuously to cope up with the regularly occurring changes in the field of health care, newly formed specializations and the increasing demand for skills in health care management.
The forensic nursing online degree programs are specially designed for the nurses at all levels who yearn to develop their qualification and skills, trail specialized areas for performance, or move forward into the managerial roles or coaching positions.
The Registered Nurses (RN) can proceed towards earning a Bachelor of Science in Nursing (BSN) if they have acquired a related degree or diploma certificate to develop their qualification as well as education. The online forensic nursing degree programs also qualify their students to avail the opportunity of entering programs for BSN and even MSN (Master of Science in Nursing).
In the huge lists of forensic nursing online programs you have to decide the best one for yourself. It is advised to request for all of the necessary details which would help you to distinguish between the various programs. With the respective colleges and institutions at your service, you can be confident enough about fulfilling your certification requirements applicable to the objectives of your line of business.
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Foreign Direct Investment in Retailing in India ? Its Emergence & Prospects
Abstract
In recent years the destination sectors in FDI have became more varied. FDI inflows have shifted from infrastructure, natural resources and export driven manufacturing to other areas such as retailing, tourism, construction and off shore services. A World Bank study showed that cumulative FDI inflows to the retail sector in the 20 largest developing countries amounted to US$ 45 billion in 1998-2002 (about 7 per cent of the total of these countries). The study showed that after liberalization; countries such as Brazil, Poland and Thailand have received significant FDI in retailing.
In spite of the recent developments in retailing and its immense contribution to the economy, retailing continues to be are the least evolved industries and the growth of organised retailing in India has been much slower as compared to rest of the world. Over a period of 10 years, the show of organised retailing in total retailing has grown from 10 per cent to 40 percent in Brazil and 20 percent in China, while in India it is only 2 per cent (between 1995-2005). One important reason for this is that retailing is one of the few sectors where foreign direct investment is not allowed. Within the country, there have been protests by trading associations and other stakeholders against allowing FDI in retailing. On the other hand, the growing market has attracted foreign investors and India has been portrayed as an important investment destination for the global retail chains. The present paper attempts to analyze the reason why foreign retailers are interested in India, the strategies they are adopting to enter India and there prospects in India
After the waves of globalisation, liberalisation and privatisation marketing scenario particularly retailing has changed radically. These changes have resulted in emergence of new environment for buyers’ behaviour and purchasing habits. The upper and upper middle strata of the society now prefers to purchase well established branded goods from standard showrooms and it has transformed the entire picture and perception not only in the metro cities but almost in all big cities of our country. It is worth mentioning that retailing in India has been hailed as one of the sun-rise sectors in the economy. According to A. T. Kearney, a well known International Management Consultant, “India is the second most attractive retail designation globally, among thirty emergent markets. ” Till now unorganised retailing sector was dominating retail trade in India by constituting 98% of all retailing trade but now not only traditional Indian retailers but giant Indian retailers like Reliance has entered in the area and is planning to expand its activities in this sector in a big wag. Even world renowned retailing organisation like Wal-Mart has decided to enter in India via joint venture with Bharti and French retailer Carrefour is busy in chalking out strategy to enter the hyper market and supermarket retail format in India through Dubai based retail major Landmark group.
In this context an effort has been made in this paper to review the emergence of global retailers in India, to examine the govt. policy relating to FDI in retailing and to evaluate the prospects of global retailing in India.
Why Global Retailers are Interested in India?
More specifically the global players are interested in India due to following reasons:
I) Strategic Location & Geography: India enjoys unique geographical advantage. It is strategically located in Asia with access to all leading markets of the World. With total area of 32, 87,590 Sq. Km, Coastline of 7000 Km and borders with six countries India becomes most promising destination for the foreign direct investment.
II) Versatile Demographics: Demographically with a population of more than 1. 1 billion and diverse culture, India is a land of all seasons. India presents a real cosmopolitan population with diverse religions and culture. Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, Sikhism, Christianity and Islam are the main religions of India. This variety of religions provides India with a diverse culture. Besides, India has versatile population of urban and rural nature. This versatility of population makes India a ready made market for foreign retailers.
III) Vast growing Economy: On economic front, India the largest democracy of the world, have a stable Govt. with robust programme of economic reforms. India with a foreign exchange reserve of more than US $120 billion, FDI of more than US $9. 9 billion ,average GDP growth of more than 7% per annum, rupee appreciation Vs U. S dollar of more than 2% in last two years and with a rapidly growing investment in infrastructure has all the ingredients of a emerging economic super power. India is tipped to be third largest economy in terms of GDP by the year 2050 (Table 1)
Table 1: Forecast of GDP ($ Trillion)
Country
2010
2050
China
3. 0
44. 5
U. S. A
13. 3
35. 2
India
0. 9
27. 8
Japan
4. 6
6. 7
Brazil
0. 7
6. 1
Russia
0. 8
5. 9
U. K.
1. 9
3. 8
Germany
2. 2
3. 6
Italy
1. 3
2. 1
Source: McKinsey Quarterly Nov. 04
In such a scenario every multinational aims to set up a base in India, not to participate in Indian growth story, rather to build their own future.
IV) Retailing: The Emerging Revolution: Retailing is the largest private industry in India and second largest employer after agriculture. The sector contributes to around 10 percent of GDP. With over 12 million retail outlets, India has the highest retail outlets density in the world. This sector witnessed significant development in the past 10 years from small unorganized family owned retail formats to organized retailing. Liberalization of the economy, rise in per capita income and growing consumerism has encouraged large business and venture capitalist in investing in retail infrastructure. The importance of retail sector in India can be judged from following facts (a) Retail sector is the largest contributor to the Indian GDP (b) The retail Sector provides 15% employment (c) India has world largest retail network with 12 million outlets (d) Total market size of retailing in India Is U. S $ 180 billion (e) Current Share of Organized Retailing is just 2% which comes around to $3. 6 trillion (f) Organized retail sector is growing @ 28% per annum.
V) Indian Retailing: Opportunities Unexplored: India is sometimes referred to as the nation of shopkeepers. This is because the country has the highest density of retail outlets – over 12 million. However, unlike most developed and developing countries, Indian retail sector is highly fragmented and bulk of the business is in the unorganized sector. As compared to China (Table 2) the presence of global players in India is very less
Table 2: Number of Foreign Retailers in India & China
Retailer
China
India
Wal- Mart
40
——–
Carrefour
53
———
Tesco
30
———–
Metro
21
02
KFC
Over 1000
04
Starbucks
70
——
McDonald’s
580
47
Pizza Hut
110
75
Louis Vuitton
06
2
Prada
10
——–
B&Q
20
——-
Hugo Boss
60
02
Source: McKinsey Quarterly Nov. 04
India in such a scenario presents following facts to foreign retailers:
In addition to the above, improved living standards and continuing economic growth, friendly business environment, growing spending power and increasing number of conscious customers aspiring to own quality and branded products in India are also attracting to global retailers to enter in Indian market.
Major Global Players in Retailing: The top 30 global retailers together with their percentage of sale from grocery and the percentage of sales in domestic and foreign markets for the year 2003 are given in Table 3.
Table 3: Top 30 Global Retailers with their Sales in Grocery and Percentage
Share of Domestic and Foreign sales in Total Retail Sales, 2003
Company
Country of Origin
Net Sales 2003 (USD mn)
Grocery Sales (%)
Domestic Sales(%)
Foreign Sales(%)
Wal-Mart
USA
256,329
43. 7
79. 1
20. 9
Carrefour
France
79,609
77. 4
50. 7
49. 3
Ahold
Neth.
63,325
84. 0
15. 8
84. 2
Metro Group
Germany
60,532
50. 5
52. 9
47. 1
Kroger
USA
53,791
70. 2
100. 0
0. 0
Tesco
UK
50,326
74. 6
80. 1
19. 9
Target
48,163
17. 8
100. 00
0. 0
Rewe
44,251
7. 6
71. 4
28. 6
Aldi
41,011
83. 6
63. 0
37. 0
ITM(Intermarche)
37,723
77. 3
72. 2
27. 8
Safeway(USA)
35,552
75. 5
85. 3
14. 7
Schwarz Group
33,357
83. 0
66. 2
33. 8
Schwarz Group
33,357
83. 0
66. 2
33. 8
Walagreens
32,505
380
100. 00
0. 0
Auchan
32,422
57. 2
57. 5
42. 5
AEON
30,574
47. 2
91. 7
8. 3
Ito-Yokado
30,541
62. 5
73. 8
26. 2
Edeka
29,670
83. 8
91. 2
8. 8
Sainsbury
27,995
73. 3
85. 1
14. 9
Tengelmann
27,721
69. 7
49. 1
50. 9
Leclerc
27,332
59. 9
95. 7
4. 3
CVS
26,588
31. 2
100. 0
0. 0
Casino
25,958
73. 3
58. 9
41. 1
Kmart
23,253
14. 0
100. 0
0. 0
Delhaize Group
21,256
77. 1
20. 1
79. 9
Loblaw
18,002
77. 5
100. 0
0. 0
JC Penney
17,786
16. 9
99. 4
0. 6
Coles Myer
17,523
58. 5
99. 4
0. 6
Daiei
17,158
43. 3
98. 9
1. 1
1,287,382
2,612,618
3,900,000
Source: Extracted from M+M Planet Retail
Arguments in favour of FDI in Retailing
FDI in retailing is favoured on following grounds:
(1) The global retailers have advanced management know how in merchandising and inventory management and have adopted new technologies which can significantly improve productivity and efficiency in retailing. (2) Entry of large low-cost retailers and adoption of integrated supply chain management by them is likely to lower down the prices. (3) FDI in retailing can easily assure the quality of product, better shopping experience and customer services. (4) They promote the linkage of local suppliers, farmers and manufacturers, no doubt only those who can meet the quality and safety standards, to global market and this will ensure a reliable and profitable market to these local players. (5) As multinational players are spreading their operation, regional players are also developing their supply chain differentiating their strategies and improving their operations to counter the size of international players. This all will encourage the investment and employment in supply chain management. (6) Joint ventures would ease capital constraints of existing organised retailers and (7) FDI would lead to development of different retail formats and modernisation of the sector.
Arguments against FDI in Retailing
Many trading associations, political parties and industrial associations have argued against FDI in retailing due to following reasons:
(1) Indian retailers have yet to consolidate their position. The existing retailing scenario is characterized by the presence of a large number of fragmented family owned businesses, who would not be able to survive the competition from global players.
(2) The examples of south east Asian countries show that after allowing FDI, the domestic retailers were marginalised and this led to unemployment.
(3) FDI in retailing can upset the import balance, as large international retailers may prefer to source majority of their products globally rather than investing in local products.
(4) Global retailers might resort to predatory pricing. Due to their financial clout, they often sell below cost in the new markets. Once the domestic players are wiped out of the market foreign players enjoy a monopoly position which allows them to increase prices and earn profits.
(5) Indian retailers have argued that since lending rates are much higher in India, Indian retailers, especially small retailers, are at a disadvantageous position compared to foreign retailers who have access to International funds at lower interest rates. High cost of borrowing forces the domestic players to charge higher prices for the products.
(6) FDI in retail trade would not attract large inflows of foreign investment since very little investment is required to conduct retail business. Goods are bought on credit and sales are made on cash basis. Hence, the working capital requirement is negligible. On the contrary; after making initial investment on basic infrastructure, the multinational retailers may remit the higher amount of profits earned in India to their own country.
In India, till recently, FDI was not allowed in retailing, but the Union cabinet on January 24, 2006 rationalised and simplified the FDI policy and allowed the contentious issue of foreign investment in retail sector by allowing FDI up to 51 percent with prior government approval for retail trade in single brand products. This would imply that foreign companies would be allowed to sell goods sold internationally under a single brand, viz. Reebok, Nokia, Adidas. Retailing of goods of multiple brands, even if such products are produced by same manufacturer would not be allowed. However, there are indications that the Government may allow foreign investments in retail segments where small domestic players do not operate. The Department of Industrial Policy and Promotion is preparing a detailed policy for further liberalisation of FDI in the country, which is likely to be announced before the budget 2007-08. As part of the proposed move, the Ministry has marked out sports goods, electronics and building equipment as some of the sectors that may be opened up with a 51% cap on FDI. The government is also considering to permit multi-brand retail in such areas. The government is likely to discuss the matter with the left parties before taking a final call on the issue. The Left has initially stalled the government’s plans to allow FDI in multi-brand retail on the grounds that it will adversely affect mom-and-pop stores.
It is worth mentioning that FDI restrictions have not deterred prominent international players from entering India. Many U. S and other international retailers and consumer goods companies consider India a top-priority market with the potential for breakthrough growth. In this context (a) Wal-Mart CEO, John Menzar visited India in 2005 and met with Prime Minister to discuss relevant issues. Wal-Mart’s sourcing from India, which was U. S. $300 million in 2004 reached to U. S. $1. 2 billion in 2005. (b) Fashion brand DKNY is set to foray into Indian fashion industry through franchise agreement with Indian company, S. Kumar’s. (c) Tommy Hilfiger, International fashion icon says that “We are going to build a wonderful lifestyle business here” (d) Phillip Morris is ready to unveil its plans for kraft in India through Kraft Jacob Suchard (KJS) India, a wholly owned arm of Philip Morris India (e) Starbucks has expressed its interest in entering India through the franchise route.
Although before January 24, 2006 FDI was not allowed in retailing, many international players are operating in the country. Some of entry routes employed by them are discussed in details as below:
(a) Manufacturing and Local Sourcing: Companies that set up manufacturing facilities are allowed to sell the products in the domestic market. Consumer durable companies such as Sony and Samsung have entered the retail sector through this route. Due to high labour cost in their domestic market, many international brands are setting up manufacturing bases in developing countries such as India and China and / or are sourcing products from local manufacturers. For example, Levi’s and Tommy Hilfiger are sourcing products from Indian manufacturers like Arvind Mills. Benetton has a manufacturing unit in India. Other international brands like GIVO from Italy have set up export-oriented manufacturing facilities. These companies are allowed to sell products to Indian consumers through franchising, local distributors, existing Indian retailers, own outlets, etc.
(b) Franchising: Franchising is the most preferred mode through which foreign players have entered the Indian market. It is the easiest route to enter the Indian market. Franchising is often used as a mode to expand the market of a particular retail enterprise outside domestic economy since it allows firms to expand without investing their own capital, is based on local expertise and enables firms to curb local oppositions and regulations. This is the most common mode for entry of fast food chains across the world. Apart from fast food chains like Pizza Hut, players such as Lacoste, Mango, Nike and Marks and Spencer, have entered the Indian market through this route.
For setting up franchising operation, the foreign players are required to take permission from the Reserve Bank of India (RBI). RBI often imposes the condition that franchisers have to bring in foreign investment and set up a base for carrying on operational activities. A foreign franchiser not wishing to make a direct investment would have to render technical assistance to the franchisee. Some franchisee, such as Pizza Hut has made significant investment in the supply chain.
The arrangements between franchisee and franchiser are found to be extremely flexible and are based on negotiation between the two. Some Indian franchisees have complained about high franchising fees together with high real estate costs, high import duties and other costs escalate the prices. For instance, the cost of a Marks and Spencer product is higher than not only the brands produced domestically but also in comparison to the price of the product in the UK. The high prices restrict the ability of the foreign players to penetrate the market but they have entered the country to make their brands visible to the huge Indian market.
If FDI is allowed in retailing, franchisees are not very sure whether they would hold the retailing rights for the brands. According to industry representatives, since franchisees largely constitute of domestic traders (even some unorganised retailers have take up franchising rights) who have made significant investment in infrastructure, government through legislation must ensure that they do not loose out their franchising rights if FDI is allowed in retailing and the franchisers decide to change the mode of operation. The existing franchisees have also expressed an interest in entering into joint venture with the franchisers if FDI is allowed in retailing.
(c) Test Marketing: Test marketing is another route through which many foreign players have entered the Indian market. Foreign investment Promotion Board (FIPB) allows foreign companies for test marketing of their products for a two-year period by the end of which they are required to set up manufacturing facilities in India. Direct selling companies like Amway and Oriflame entered the Indian market through this route. Initially, Amway got an approval for test marketing for a period of two years but they managed to secure an extension of one more year. At the end of the third year, they set up contract manufacturing facilities and brought in foreign investment and technical know-how. Oriflame too extended its test marketing license for a third year and at the end of which had set up a manufacturing facility in Noida (UP) for producing certain specific products. Other products are imported and would continue to be imported from abroad.
Nokia came to India through the test marketing route in mid-1990s. Initially they got a license for two years to test their products in the Mumbai circle. After three months of their entry they tied up with the service providers to provide integrated services to their customers. Due to pressure from the FIPB, Nokia had tied up with the HCL Infotech as a strategic partner for all India distribution of Nokia products. After the success of its products in the country, Nokia had opened up an office but had not set up a manufacturing facility and continued to import all products (even models made specifically for India). After another two years they divided the country into four zones and entered into a strategic alliance for distribution with Supreme for East and West India while HCL continued with North and Southern zone. Nokia had also applied for the cash and carry license from the FIPB and has recently got the license. Nokia is aggressively targeting the Indian consumers and plan to capture 75 percent of the mobile market in the next seven years. The company, which currently operates as a wholesale cash-and carry, recently announced that it would set up manufacturing facilities very soon.
The test marketing route allows foreign players to test the demand for their products in Indian market before undertaking investment. Even if FDI is allowed in retailing, many foreign players would like to enter the Indian market through this route.
(d) Wholesale Cash-and-Carry Operation: This is the route through which large international retailers such as Germany’s Metro Cash & Carry GmbH and Shoprite Checkers of South Africa have entered the Indian market. The wholesale cash-and-carry operation is defined as any trading outlets where goods are sold at the wholesale rate for retailers and businesses to buy. The transactions are only for business purposes and not for personal consumption as in the case of retailing.
(e) Distributor: Companies such as Swarovski and Hugo Boss have set up distribution offices in India and these offices supply the products to local retailers. All products of Hugo Boss are imported and distributed through the company’s distributor.
(f) Special Cases: The Sri Lankan retailers have entered the India market through the initiatives of Export Development Board of Sri Lanka (EDB) which obtained special permission from the RBI to set up retail operations in India. The EDB has leased 17 retail outlets in Spencer Plaza in Chennai in which Sri Lankan retailers are showcasing and selling their products. The Sri Lankan products showcased in these stores are mostly at the higher end of the quality spectrum and can be brought into the country free of duty. This gives an advantage to large Sri Lankan retailers like Hameedia not only to establish a global presence but also to access the large customer base of India at competitive prices. The EDB is also exploring the possibilities of setting up similar trade centres in other cities like Delhi and Mumbai. Although this mode has allowed retailers from Sri Lanka to enter the Indian market without domestic manufacturing and sourcing conditions and some products sold by these traders are similar to those sold by Indian retailers, EDB did not face any opposition from Chambers, retailers and the trading houses.
Although the official policy is that FDI in retailing is allowed only in one brand and that too up to 51% in retailing, but it has not acted as an entry barrier. Foreign players have a substantial presence in the country and have used several alternative unique routes to enter Indian Trading Sector. Some of the existing foreign players are listed below in table 4.
Table 4: Some Existing Foreign Players and Prospective Entrants
Type
Status
7-Eleven
Supermarket
Evaluating
Amway
Direct selling
Already in
Auchan
Hypermarket
Evaluating
Carrefour
Multi-format retailer
Wait and watch
Dairy Farm
Multi-format retailers
Tied up with RPG
JC Penny
Product sourcing
Already in
Landmark
Department Store
Already in
Lee Cooper
Product sourcing
Already in
Levi’s
Product sourcing
Already in
Mango
Apparel retailer
Already in
Marks & Spencer
Department Store
Already in
Metro
Cash & carry
Already in
Oriflame
Direct selling
Already in
Reebok
Oint venture
Already in
Shoprite
Wholesale cash-and-carry and franchising
Already in
Sony
Manufacturer Retailer
Already in
Wal-Mart
Hypermarket
Agreement with Bharti
Source: FDI in Retail Sector, Department of consumer affairs, Government of India, p. 115.
It is evident that ever growing urban and rural markets in India represent an unprecedented and vast unexplored opportunity for retailing to all types of formats. Initially there may be certain reservations and apprehensions in allowing global players in India’s retailing but if they are allowed in a phased manner on the basis of a well conceived and chalked out policy, they are likely to lead to more investment in organized retailing and allied sectors. As already discussed, it would also lead to inflow of latest technical know how, establishment of well integrated and sophisticated supply chains, availability of standard, latest and quality products, help in up gradation of human skills and increased sourcing from India. Yet the following points may be kept into consideration in this context:
The strategy of opening up should be backed by appropriate reform measures. India can learn from the experiences of other developed and developing countries and develop its own strategies, laws and regulations that would be in the best interest of the country. As of now, there is no proper definition of retailing or retail formats in India. International players are exploiting the situation and are often entering the market and expanding their businesses through multiple routes and are operating in the country with more than one format of retailing. The regulatory regime should address these issues. The entry norms should clearly state the approval requirements, conditions / restrictions if any imposed, etc. The government should also strictly enforce the quality standards for local production and imports.
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IT Colleges in Hyderabad
Hyderabad has been famous for the IT sector and the telecom industry it has, due to which it provides a number of opportunities for the aspirants in IT. It has become the hub of information technology companies in India, due to which it is also called as ‘Cyberabad’. Other than IT, the city also has many pharmaceutical and biotechnology companies, which gives rise to the need of corresponding colleges in Hyderabad. The city has a number of research and management institutes. Many famous IT institutes of India are also located in the city. Hyderabad is a very developed city, instilled with the latest infrastructure, and facilities for its citizens. The institutes and colleges in Hyderabad are highly developed and provide a great platform to its students to gain valuable education from renowned institutes of the country.
The colleges and universities in Hyderabad are renowned all across the country, and structure the future of the students with proper education and detailed classes. The teachers of the colleges in India, always teaches their students, with the aim of making them perfect in their disciplines, so that they are not left with any kind of information, which they do not know. The education curriculum is formed to make the students perfectionists in their fields. IT is a field, which gets on expanding due to its developments and the various achievements made in this field.
Following is a list of the IT colleges in Hyderabad, where a student can apply and can pursue the course in the field of hid choice:
v Indian Institute of Technology
v University College of Engineering Osmania University
v Padala Rama Reddy College of Computer Science
v College of Engineering Deptt. of Computer Science & Engineering Kukatpally
v Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University
v Vishwa Bharathi Degree College Vishwa Bharathi Bhava
v Deccan College of Engineering & Technology
v Fergusson College P. G. Centre
v Chaitnaya Bharathi Institute of Technology
v Holy Mary Institute of Technology & Science
v Al Qurmoshi Institute of Business Management & Computer Sciences
v Bankatal Badurka College for Information Technology
All the institutes have courses in IT and provide admission to students on their calibre. The entrance tests and the admission procedures, vary according to the institute and the standards of education it provides. The students are provided with all the facilities and practical labs, so that they can have good hands on the practical part of their education. The colleges in Hyderabad, provides both graduate and post graduate courses to its students. The courses aim to make the students aware of the latest developments and the progresses happening in the world. The college faculties and the management organises seminars and lectures for the students, to introduce them with the outer world and to let them know the practicalities of the professions, they have opted for.
Hyderabad being referred as the cyber city, has a large number of IT companies, therefore its colleges have tie ups with few of the renowned companies, which provide trainings and internships to its students. This works as a great opportunity for the students, because they have the platform, where they can learn and practise the actualities of their field and take the feel of the work environment, where they have to work one day for sure. The placements opportunities in the IT colleges of Hyderabad are also high, same because of its association with top recruitment companies. The colleges of Hyderabad has students coming from all parts of the country, due to which the colleges has great accommodation facilities, which gives a ease to the students and their families to not worry, about their health and their lifestyle, in a place away from home.
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Bad Credit Student Loans: Easy Finance for Growth and Education
Bad credit is more often than not a problem for all finance-seekers who need money to fulfill their needs. But when the question of education arises, the concept totally changes and it is easy to obtain finances even inspite of bad credit. Bad Credit Student Loans cater to all the needs that these borrowers students have.
The borrowers can take up these loans for their needs which arise when they decide to take up higher education. The needs that can arise for the students are tuition fee, boarding and lodging, examination fee, laboratory fee, stationary expenses, buying a computer etc. All these needs are important to be fulfilled and this can be easily done through the student loans which are approved inspite of bad credit.
These loans are unsecured by nature and do not require any assets to be pledged with the lender for the money. This helps the students in getting the money as all students may not have assets in their name that they can pledge. The borrower can take up all the money that he requires for his education.
These loans have a very special feature attached to them. The repayment of the loan amount has to be done only after the student has completed his education and has got a full time employment. The rate of interest for bad credit borrowers is usually higher but with these loans, the borrowers are charged lower rates as the purpose of these loans helps in the growth of the country as well.
To get low rate deals for these loans, the borrowers can take up a research through the online mode. This will help them compare the deals that are offered to them and they are able to judge the rates and the terms available to them. Also there are counselors present in universities that help the students by providing them knowledge about these loan deals.
Through bad credit student loans, the borrowers can obtain the money that can help them make their future good without much burden on them as well.
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Physical Therapy Certification Programs
Find Physical Therapy Certification Programs in the United States and Canada. Prospective students who are interested in a career in physical therapy must first become certified and/or licensed in order to practice in the field. In most cases, graduates of an approved physical therapy certification program are eligible to take the National Physical Therapist Examination (NPTE) to become licensed and/or certified in their respective state of residence. If you’re a student in high school an excellent way to gain an understanding and relative experience in the field would be to volunteer as a school athletic trainer.
Whether individuals choose to pursue an Associate’s degree as a physical therapist assistant or are seeking higher education like a Master’s or Doctoral degree, physical therapy certification programs all begin with basic coursework in science including biology, chemistry and physics. Additional studies in a physical therapy certification program are human growth and development, pathology, biomechanics, and other associated subject matter.
Candidates who would like to pursue a Doctorate in a physical therapy certification program must meet certain academic prerequisites, including a Bachelor’s degree. Physical therapy certification programs such as this involve advanced coursework including human and clinical anatomy, histology, practice management, biomechanics, cardiovascular and pulmonary management, clinical pharmacology and nutrition, and primary care practice, among numerous other subjects of study.
Aside from hands-on training, students participating in physical therapy certification programs acquire a wealth of effective patient communication skills, and business education.
Candidates who have completed all required training and education, and who have attained physical therapy certification (and/or licensure) can enjoy a booming occupational field, as the growth potential of careers in physical therapy is expected to rise over the coming decade.
If you (or someone you know) are interested in attaining your physical therapy certification, let professional training within fast-growing industries like massage therapy, cosmetology, acupuncture, oriental medicine, Reiki, and others get you started! Explore career school programs near you.
Employment source: Bls. gov (US Bureau of Labor Statistics)Physical Therapy Certification Programs
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Math homework help: Online Assignment Help from TutorsOnNet
Are you struggling with mathematics in school or college, TutorsOnnet math tutoring can provide help in a convenient and effective way. Math can be a major struggle for children – starting in Grade 1 and continuing throughout their high school years and beyond. Children who find the subject less intuitive than others can often face hours of frustrating homework, alongside equally frustrated parents, a loss of self-confidence and a lost opportunities later in life. Eliminating the fuss and the fear of math homework by getting appropriate help with tutors gives the student the necessary confidence to face the following day’s work without concern. Math homework help may be enlisted to accommodate even the busiest of schedules.
With some online math tutoring programs, your child will enjoy interactive tutoring with the same teacher at all times. This gives your child an opportunity to get to know and become comfortable with the tutor and style of learning – just as if you had hired a tutor to come to your home. To ensure quality learning sessions, you’ll want to choose an online math tutoring service in which the teachers hold a Graduate or Masters degree. Another benefit of using an online tutoring service is your child can be tutored at a time of the week and/or day when it’s most convenient. Some online math tutoring services provide personalized tutoring lessons to match your child’s learning style. An assessment will be given to determine how your child best learns.
Math problems can be a confusing and challenging at times. You can send us Math problems from Basic Math problems like Algebra, Geometry, Trigonometry, and Arithmetic to more advanced Math Assignment Problems like Limits, Continuity, Derivatives, Pre-Calculus, and Calculus.
Our Math tutors who have advanced degree’s in mathematics and many years of experience in tutoring Math can help you by providing detailed & logical solutions to your Math Assignment Problems. We pride ourselves in delivering the highest quality of Math Assignment Help at a very reasonable cost. Please do explore the rest of our page to learn more about our service & Math Assignment Help topics.
Whatever your Math Assignment help needs, do send your questions to us along with a deadline for the Math Assignment Help problems. Please do remember to send us any supporting material which your math instructor might want to use in solving your math assignment problems. If you don’t send or tell us your custom requirements for your math homework help problems there is no way of our tutors knowing the Math Assignment Help topic requirements.
A math tutoring program can help you fill in all the gaps so that comprehension will fall naturally into place and put a student on the road to success. Look for a tutor who is extremely adept at explaining difficult concepts in simple, accessible language with an effective online math tutoring service; you can expect your child’s test scores to improve within a short period of time. But that’s not all! You can also expect your child’s comprehension of math problems to improve. This is what will really help later on in life when the math is used in real life scenarios. Tutoring is not meant to show only the correct answer, but to help your child understand “how” that answer was reached.
To know more details please go through our website http://www. tutorsonnet. com/
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Education About the Educational Loan
Securing the first loan of your life will be challenging. Anybody who has been through the old rigmarole of actually securing a loan will be aware of the many challenges that are involved. The young man who is straight out of college may want to secure a personal loan. A woman in her mid-twenties might be studying the pros and cons of taking an auto loan. A young, married couple may be looking at getting a mortgage so that a dream house can be bought. But no matter what the situation, securing that loan will definitely be a challenge.
Let us take the case of a young person who is interested in higher education. As we all know, higher education is quite expensive. We may want to get that degree or diploma, and may have sufficient brain power to get it, but our available funds may be insufficient. Luckily, for most of us, education loans are easily accessible. Banks and financial institutions in every nook and cranny are ready to pay the fees for the educational dreams of many students, both young and old. The expansion in the loan markets has led to a rise in numbers of various kinds of loans. As a result, young students who harbor dreams of higher education can achieve those dreams.
At the same time, no borrower must allow himself to be satisfied with the first deal that he gets. Remember that the loan providers are simply doing their job. You are their customer, and it is their duty to help you with your finances. Hence, do not allow yourself to feel morally indebted to the loan provider. This is a business deal, pure and simple. The only thing that you must bear in mind is that you need to repay the loan amount as soon as you can. Defaulting on the amount only leads to still more avoidable expenses.
Even while looking for an education loan, you must take your budget into consideration. Ask yourself if you will indeed be able to repay the loan amount. Also, look out for discounted deals and special offers. There might be special deals available for the course that is of interest to you. Check with students who are attending that course. Find out how they are paying the fees. And do not rush into any deal just because the lender is pitching you a great deal. There are always some loopholes. See to it that you read the fine print before signing the deal.
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